Most Important Notes from APOL 290 {5,659 words}
I. Lesson 1 - Evolution
A. Four theories of Creation. How did we get here? Everything is speculative with lots of assumptions.
1. Life always existed (Steady state theory). This is not very popular today.
2. Ancestors and plants could have come from outer Space on a meteor or comet. This theory came about because the time for evolution on earth is too long. But this idea does not solve the problem.
3. Life could have originated on earth at some point in the past (evolution).
4. All forms of life came about from a supernatural Being (God).
B. With the above theories, one must choose between natural (evolution) versus supernatural (God).
C. Evolution is the gradual development of all forms of life by natural processes from a common ancestral form. The ancestral form arose from complex processes from a chemical, primieval ocean (primordial soup). The evolutionist envisions an earth full of ocean with complex chemicals that generated themselves spontaneously out of nothing. But Louie Pasteur proved that living things are only generated by other living things, so spontaneous generation is not currently possible. Evolutionists say that the generation happened a long, long time ago.
D. The alternative to evolution is Creation, but both evolution and Creation are without human witnesses. Two out of three lawyers say that Creation in the Public School does not violate the Law. They believe that both should be taught in school, but the Supreme Court said no in a 7-to-2 decision. The Supreme Court said that Creationism could be taught with other theories of Creation.
E. Creationism is not religious because it is one more theory. Belief that a Creator exists is an intellectual choice that does not mean a commitment to that Creator. If Creation is religious, then evolution can be, too. Some people worship rocks, but we do not reject rocks.
F. Francis Bacon (scientific method) - (1) state a problem, (2) form an hypothesis, (3) observe and collect data, (4) interpret data, and (5) draw conclusions.
G. With evolution and the big bang theory, they change the data to fit the hypothesis instead of changing the hypothesis to match the data. But this is not good science. Evolution and Creation are models, not theories because neither can be tested experimentally.
H. The class wants to present both models and lets the student decide. The models will stimulate research.
I. The Creation Model - (1) accomplished by Creator, (2) first forms of life were complete, (3) variation and speciation was limited to each "kind." Predictions about data are: (1) sudden appearance in great variety of complex forms, (2) young earth.
J. The Evolution Model - (1) accomplished by natural processes through inanimate matter, (2) all life from single source, which was from inanimate matter over a long time, (3) unlimited changes and all genetic forms are related. Predictions about data are: (1) gradual change of simple form to more complex forms (half frog, half fish and all such extremes), (2) mutations in genetic structure, (3) old earth.
II. Lesson 2 - Evolution
A. Science works from the 5-step scientific method. Both evolution and Creation are out of the realm of science because neither can be tested experimentally. Theodotius Dobzhansky said, on the one hand, that evolution cannot be repeated and that it cannot be reversed. Even scientists have said that it was a one-time occurrence that does not satisfy the scientific method. Then, he said that evolution was a proven fact that does not need to be proved.
B. Many people accept evolution because Creation is too incredible. Julian Huxley (a biologist and evolutionist) said that humanists are people that see man as the product of evolution and that he must take care of himself. George Gaylord Simpson (a famous paleontologist) said that man stands alone and that he is not responsible to anyone but himself. Richard Goldschmidt (a famous biologist) said that evolution is fact without a need for proof according to all of those that are entitled to judgment.
C. Life cannot be understood without understanding how life originated.
D. Evolution and morals (Simpson) - (1) All things unique to you are from evolution, (2) you are your own master, (3) you are responsible to no one, and (4) you must make your own destiny. Man's guidelines are those that he comes up with.
E. The Space program wants to search with the Russians for extraterrestrial life on Mars. They are looking for the complex chemicals of life in the crustal surface of Mars. This would suggest that life might be starting to evolve on Mars.
F. Julian Huxley says that evolution is a directional (upward) and irreversible process over time which gives an increase in variety (more and more complex).
G. Rules for propaganda syndrome - (1) assumes that the theory is true, (2) ignores contradictory facts and data instead of changing the hypothesis, (3) most popular must be true, (4) appropriate credentials are necessary to criticize, and (5) neglect any evidence that invalidates the belief.
H. Evolutionists think that Creationists are (1) not able to study science, (2) associated with witchcraft, astrology, and flat earth, and (3) anti-intellectual.
I. The "kind" - the formation of a zygote from a union of sex cells whether the offspring make sense or not. They are interfertile. Goats and sheep, cows and bison, and horses and jackasses are possible mates. A "liger" came from a lion and a tiger in controlled conditions. They do not normally mate in reality. On the Ark were two of every "kind." The cat "kind" might have had all the characteristics of all cats, tigers, lions, and so forth. That way one pair could produce all the breeds of the species. This is morphological sameness. A "zonkey" came from a zebra and a donkey. These things are called zygotes. Mating patterns can change. The dog, wolf, fox, and jackal are all of the "dog" kind. They may interbreed, but at one time, they were classified as different species.
J. Creation view says that there are genetic boundaries, but the evolutionist says that there are not any such boundaries. This is how they justify species generation.
K. Three characteristics of a kind: (1) one interfertile group is not related to another group, (2) all organisms of one kind can be traced back to original created kinds, and (3) discontinuities exist both genetically and morphologically.
L. Mutations are sudden rapid changes in the genetic makeup (six fingers on a human).
M. "Kind," to the Creationist, comes from Hebrew words "bara" and "min", which is created kinds. Prototypes are the originally created kinds. Because of kinds, the Ark would not have been overloaded.
N. Species, to the evolutionist, says that all organisms are related genetically to the first cell. All nature is continued genetically and morphologically.
O. Infertility with animals can be caused by geography (separated by a body of water) or physical (big and small dogs). To the Creationist, the kinds would have left the Ark and started producing all the various breeds of animal life.
P. For the evolutionists, what chemicals would have been in the primordial soup? Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, Nitrogen, and Phosphorous.
III. Lesson 3 - The Doctrine of Evolution
A. Evolution was before 1859 (Darwin) but has been around through time. The early Greeks were inclined in that direction. Thales (600BC) said that all life came from water. Anaximenes (500BC) said that life came about from sun and water. Epicurius (200-300BC) said life from natural causes. Aristotle described life as a gradual change from one form to another. Augustine (400AD before Christian) said inanimate could go to animate. Jean Baptiste La Marck (1744-1829) was an evolutionist in theory.
B. Buffone introduced the idea of uniformity. This means that the processes operating today operated in the long distant past. He believed that the environment could cause change from one species to another.
C. La Marck was taught under influence of Buffone. He said that working on a part of the body can lead to change in the body, (use and disuse) and that that can be passed to offspring (inheritance). Inheritance does not have any evidence to support this belief. Cutting the tail off a mouse does not produce mice without tails. His theory has been maintained in light on contrary evidence. He had a very tragic life (three wives the died, five messed up kids, and penniless), so he rejected God.
D. James Hutton set up the geological time table. Charles Lyell inspired Darwin and reinforced the work of Hutton. He supported uniformity and long age of the earth. Hutton and Lyell formed the Geological Agency, and that created the foundation for Darwin.
E. Darwin lived in Victorian England where advanced degrees were expected. The people were very class conscious. He believed in the concept of inheritance. He thought that a person could be influenced by their environment and that such changes could be passed on to the offspring. He married a cousin because he thought that her qualities with his would be passed on. They had ten children, and all of them were physically messed up (genetic disorders). He had started out to be a doctor. He could not do well in the sciences, so he got a professional theology degree without ever preaching a sermon or studying the Bible. He was an agnostic and maybe even atheistic. He never even told his wife about that. He probably died lost.
F. Alfred Russell Wallace reached the same conclusions as Darwin. The term evolution was never used until the sixth printing of his manuscript. Wallace came up with the term "natural selection," and Darwin borrowed it. Wallace and Darwin were competitors. Wallace lost all his records in a fire, so he lost that. He also lost his money, and Darwin helped him get a Government pension. They co-authored the original "Origin of the Species," but Darwin's name alone appeared on later printings. Herbert Spencer coined the term "survival of the fittest." Darwin was very unpopular and even considered a plagarist by many. He was buried in Westminister Abbey. Thomas Huxley published Darwin's works.
G. Darwin's theory in a nutshell.
1. Darwin said that organisms tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support (over-production). In one year, cod fish would produce forty trillion offspring. Frogs can produce five billion in five generations. He said they produce at geometric rates, but the population does not increase at the same rate. Thomas Malthus influenced Darwin on this point. He said the food production increases arithmetically. He said to preserve famines as nature's way to cleanse. He favored infanticide, warfare, and no medical research.
2. Darwin said that any offspring in a limited environment leads to competition (constant struggle for existence).
3. He said that many offspring would lead to variation (individual variation).
4. He said that those variations become more able to survive (fittest survive to transmit survival characteristics to the next generation).
H. Darwin did not understand inheritance and that traits were passed through the sex cells. Gregor Mendel knew that, but his work was ignored until about 1902 because Darwin's views were getting so much attention. Mutations are not inheritance.
I. The impact of Darwin's work - Julian Huxley (grandson of Thomas Huxley) said that Darwin's work surpassed the works of Newton and the others. The front of a modern-day Biology books says that "Origin of the Species" is probably second to the Bible in popularity, and it is probably correct. Evolution elevates nature to be an irresistable force.
J. Mutations are the working principles for evolution. The human body has forty-six chromosomes, half from each parent. If a pair becomes three, then that will cause problems in the offspring. Evolution involves chromosome transmission, so this part of the process is important.
IV. Lesson 4 - Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA
A. We have 'A' -> tall person and 'a' -> short person genes in both sperm cells and eggs. Individual traits are inherited, but they are inherited in pairs. 'AA' would be tall, and 'aa' would be short. Gregor Mendel found that 'Aa' would still be tall because 'A' would be dominant. He saw that some genes are more dominant than others. A fish to a frog would have to have the same kind of genetic transfer. A person with three breasts happens because of the embryonic ridge from neck to groin area where any number of breasts can develop. A slight mutation to the genetic information could cause the change. Six fingers or six toes is the same way. These things were called "factor".
B. Marijuana and cocaine can cause defective sperms. Sex cells are gametes.
C. Darwinian evolution is wrong and inadequate - the environment does not affect genetic transfer. Genes and chromosomes do. Today, we have neo-Darwinism (modified Darwinism), and that is what is taught in the Public Schools. It is sometimes called the Modern Synthesis or the Modern Synthetic Theory.
D. Individual differences occur because of the genetic makeup. Darwinism went to neo-Darwinism by synthesizing modern viewpoints, like the genes transfer, into Darwinism.
E. Julian Huxley developed the concept of "kind." Hugo Devre gave the concept of "mutation."
F. Abiogenic molecular evolution would be life forming from the non-life in the soupy ocean. Mutation is the working mechanism of neo-Darwinism. Mutation is a change in the structure of an organism caused by the environment. Mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence in DNA. Two nucleotide (phosophorous, sugar, and bases) lead to a nucleic acid. Multiple nucleic acids produce a nucleic DNA. The point is that mutations must occur at very low levels of the genetic process.
G. In DNA, two purine bases (adenine (A) and guanine (G)) and two pyrimidine bases (cytosine (C) and thymine (T)) are used. Only A and T can hook up because they are the only ones that have the same shape. Only C and G can hook up for the same reason. Because these hook up this way, mistakes cannot happen. This is at the DNA level. A gene is a combination of a A and T and the C and G. "AT" might be the tall person ("AA") while "TA" might be the short person ("aa"). Every person is a combination of millions of As, Ts, Cs, and Gs. Normal people can only happen by these combinations. Evolution says that all of this highly complex processing happened randomly. Tampering with the combinations of As, Ts, Cs, and Gs causes mutations, swapping an A and a T or a C and a G. To change a fish into a frog, some changes have to be made in the As, Ts, Cs, and Gs. DNA samples look at the information in the As, Ts, Cs, and Gs. Some of that information tells the person's sex, where to put an arm, an eye, a breast, and so forth. This information is so highly ordered and evolution says that it all happened by chance. The chance of that happening, as will be seen in a future lesson, is very, very very small. That increases the chances of an intelligent Creator.
H. Review: Deoxy Ribose consisted of Nucleotide, which consisted of sugar, phosphate, and one of the four bases (A, T, C, or G). A phosphate combined with sugar with a base attached to it produced a nucleotide. Two of them created a nucleic acid (it was at this level that the As and Ts and Cs and Gs hooked together). DNA is a combination of many nucleic acids joined together to give a molecule of DNA. That molecule of DNA must join with another molecule of DNA to produce a characteristic in a person. DNA is packaged in chromosomes.
I. Two good websites for additional information (note that these are secular websites):
V. Lesson 5 - How Traits are Passed to Generations
A. Evolution predicates that creatures change, and that can only happen with changes to DNA (hereditary genes). Information molecules are A, T, C, and G. DNA fingerprinting has been made admissible in court. The DNA molecule is so unique that there is a certain place on it that will have a precise A, T, C, and G arrangement that occurs one in one billion times. It is pretty much unique to the individual. All that is needed is some living tissue to do the DNA analysis. Gene/DNA splicing was once tried to create a super germ/bacteria. The E-Coli bacterium lives in the digestive tract and it produces vitamin K. It is harmless and very beneficial, and it has one strand of DNA in it. A gene is a combination of As, Ts, Cs, and Gs. Through gene splicing, the E-Coli can be made to produce insulin for diabetes patients. If the code can be modified, then creatures to come might be changeable, too.
B. Genetic variation is essential to evolutionary change. The only two sources of genetic variation are mutations (change in a nucleitide sequence (As, Ts, Cs, and Gs --> CG to GC --> could lead to six fingers or three breasts or something like that)) and genetic recombination. Xrays, certain drugs, and similar type things can cause mutations. Mutations are mistakes. With genetic recombination, the genes are recombined. Nothing is new or lost. The genes are just recombined.
C. Scientists call microevolution the same as evolution, which is horizontal change. But a lot of people would not think that. The "zonkey" (zebra-donkey) and "liger" (lion-tiger) are examples of microevolution because the family has not changed. The cat group is lion and tiger which produced a liger, but it is still a cat. Going from a cat to a dog is vertical evolution, and it has been assumed that this is true. This is macroevolution, and it has not been observed. There are not any half fish and half frogs. The fossil record does not show them, either, but they are predicted by the evolution model.
D. Meiosis comes from Greek meaning to cut in half. It is the reduction of the chromosome number by one half of the original number, and it is also the production of sex cells. By doing the latter, the former is accomplished. Humans have forty-six chromosomes. Meiosis always produces four cells. The man produces four sperm cells, but the woman produces one egg cell and three polar bodies which die out. If one of the sperm cells combines with one of the egg cells, a zygote is produced and that is the essence of inheritance. During conception 400 to 500 million sperm cells are produced, and that is called the gene pool.
E. Alleles means a member of a gene pair. Brown eyes (B) and blue eyes (b). If the zygote has Bb, then only one trait is inherited and brown eyes will dominate. The possibilities are BB, Bb, bb. Blue can only be "bb".
F. Homozygous and Heterozygous are (BB or bb - same) or (Bb - different), respectively. Homozygous are purebred.
G. Phenotype (what you look like. Brown eyes, straight hair, tall, and so forth) and Genotype (what is not seen. Brown eyes can be BB or Bb, but you only see brown eyes).
H. Information from one generation to another - Bb (male) x bb (female) --> create through meiosis Bb, Bb, bb, and bb. If the male is heterozygous, then fifty-fifty chance of brown or blue eyes. In a Bb x Bb, you get, through meiosis, BB, Bb, Bb, and bb. Seventy-five percent will be brown eyes and one fourth will be blue eyes.
VI. Lesson 6 - More on Inherited Traits (neo-Darwinism)
A. Inheriting blood type - {AB, B, A, O}
1. to have B-type blood can be BB (B from one parent, and B from the other parent), BO (B from one parent, and O from the other parent)
2. to have A-type blood can be AA (A from one parent, and A from the other parent), AO (A from one parent, and O from the other parent)
3. to have AB-type blood can be AB (A from one parent, and B from the other parent)
4. to have O-type blood can be OO (O from one parent, and O from the other parent)
5. Adam and Eve would have been AO, BO to produce all four blood types
B. Changing a fish to a frog can only happen by mutation (altering genetic structure)
C. Evolutionists believe that new creatures can be produced by mutations and genetic recombination from a gene pool. Some genes in the gene pool will be beneficial, some detrimental or harmful, and some would be neutral of a given population. The working mechanism seems to be mutation and changing the DNA. The C. H. Hardy-Wilhelm Weinberg Principle says that a dominant gene (big-B) will dominate, but this is not true. It says that genes will remain fairly constant and stable in a population over long periods of time. The recessive gene (little-b) will still have an impact, so the population will not remain stable.
D. Genetic drift - when the genotype or phenotype in a small population will change because chance alone will favor a particular gametes.
E. Five ways according to evolution to produce a new species: (1) genetically isolate genes, (2) geographic isolation (Australia), (3) adaptive radiation (adapt to environment and spread out), (4) many sets of chromosomes (questionable as to whether a new species has been created because you really just create another chromosome) - polyfoy (a sudden replication of chromosomes), and (5) reproductive isolation (gametes maturing at different times). The different creatures that could possibly result are still in the same species, so this is only microevolution. Evolutionists try to say that macroevolution would also result over very long periods of time.
F. The Neo-Darwinism and Darwinism big difference is the mutation (change in genetic material).
G. Are there any mutations beneficial enough to transform one species into another? This is what we wish to investigate in future lessons.
H. VERY IMPORTANT (*****). It has been envisioned that a fish will be changed into a frog or amphibian (transitional form - the stage that represents the fish evolving into the frog (half-fish/half-frog) or ape-like ancestor evolving to man (half ape-like/half man)). Evolutionists do not have any of these transitional forms, and this is very, very important. If they had any, the museums would be full of them.
I. Two evolutionists (Stephen Jay Gould and Nals Eldridge) have proposed an alternative called punctuated equilibrium (long periods where species do not change intermingled with punctuated periods of big changes). This notion is clever, but it does not have any foundation. Creatures may not be able to survive such rapid change.
VII. Lesson 7 - Questions and Answers
A. Darwinian Evolution was updated by neo-Darwinism. Neo-Darwinism failed a number of tests. Then, they started coming up with punctuated equilibrium (periods of time of rapid changes with no fossils and long periods of no change - to explain the absence of the fossil record). Then, comes hopeful monster (changes are so rapid that they occur while still in the egg - aligator egg comes out as a bird), then quantum speciation (like punctuated equilibrium except for only a few select species). The iterative steps show that evolution is still at the conception level.
B. Proteins are composed of amino acids. Proteins are large molecules that make up what we are physically. Inatimer means that amino acids exist in two optical isomer forms - the L (levo - rotate a beam of light to the left) and D (dextro - rotate a beam of light to the right) forms. The L and R determine which side the three basic component parts of L-alamine and D-alamine (an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), and a unique "r" chain (this structure determines which of the twenty types of amino acids)) are on relative to the alpha carbon atom. These are critical to the Creation model. Chemistry uses empirical (H2O) and structural formulas (show arrangement: H - O - H).
C. VERY IMPORTANT (*****). The kinds of amino acids composing living things are ALWAYS one hundred percent L-forms. The human body composes protein from twenty different amino acids, and they are ALL one hundred percent L-form. When synthesized in the laboratory through natural processes, protein are composed of fifty percent each. Natural processes cannot create one hundred percent L-forms in the laboratory, so it probably would not do it in the prebiotic soup. Conclusion: There is not any known natural process that can produce one hundred percent L-form amino acids. Chemists cannot explain this phenomenon. If this cannot happen naturally, then it must have happened supernaturally. This would be good information to teach in the Public Schools.
D. Maybe the prebiotic soup started out one hundred percent L forms in the beginning. What would have happened? The desire would be to produce proteins of one hundred percent L form amino acids, but what we will get is a mixture of fifty-fifty L and D forms. According to racemization (which is a law of chemistry that is used for dating), the protein will break down into amino acids of fifty-fifty L and D forms. Therefore, chemists still do not know how to get to one hundred percent L forms. The probability of doing this naturally is 1 in 10^114, which is nearly impossible or even impossible.
E. The evolutionist believes that this chemistry situation will be resolved in the future. They write the above argument off by saying that conditions in the beginning might have allowed for the one hundred percent L forms.
F. These problems relate to trying to produce protein. Are there similar problems for trying to produce the information molecule DNA (DeoxyribosNucleic acid)? DNA is how information is passed on, so it is very important. DNA is contained in the nucleus of a cell. It carries information for inheritance, and it also regulates the cell. The three parts of DNA are phosphorus, sugar, and a base (A, T, C, and G (these are amino acids)). The gene site (combination of two bases) component parts of DNA is where information is stored, and it tells the living things to code for the L forms of the amino acids. It is located where the As, Ts, Cs, and Gs are in the DNA.
G. VERY IMPORTANT (*****). With the sugars in DNA, a similar problem exists because they are only D and L forms. But the sugar in living structures are one hundred percent D forms, and there is not any known natural way to produce one hundred percent D forms. If the D form sugars cannot be produced naturally, then DNA cannot be produced naturally either. If this cannot happen naturally, then it must have happened supernaturally. This would be good information to teach in the Public Schools.
H. Three good websites for additional information (note that these are secular websites):
a. Chemistry 302 - "Amino Acids"
The following quote came from the above webpage: "While there are many forms of amino acids, all of the important amino acids found in living organisms are alpha-amino acids. Alpha amino acids have the -COOH and -NH2 groups both attached to the same carbon atom, called the alpha carbon atom. . . . Each asymmetric carbon gives rise to two optical isomers which are traditionally distinguished by the letters D or L. Only those amino acids which are the L forms (left-handed) at the alpha carbon are found in terrestrial life."
b. "Amino Acids" by Dr. Ron Kennedy, MD
The following quote came from the above webpage: "The body also has the ability to synthesize amino acids, to make them from scratch, except for eight amino acids, which must be supplied from the outside. These are called "essential amino acids," because they are essential for you to continue living. Their names are isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. We place an "L-" in front of each to denote the natural form which is the only form used by the body for most purposes."
c. "Isomer" in the Columbia Encyclopedia
The following quote came from the above webpage: "Thus it is seen that the two molecules are mirror images of each other and, each being asymmetrical, cannot be superposed on each other. The d- and l- prefixes stand for dextro (right) and levo (left). Two optical isomers, such as these, whose molecules are asymmetrical and are mirror images of each other, are called enantiomorphs. When equal amounts of d- and l-enantiomorphs are mixed, the mixture has no effect on polarized light; such a mixture is called racemic."
VIII. Lesson 8 - Evolution
A. In a watery environment, the nucleitide (one phosphate, one sugar, one base; two of them make a nucleic acid.) would decompose, and you would never get the chance to evolve to the nucleic acid. The sugar would also break down and never evolve into something more complex. The one hundred percent L-forms and sugars (one hundred percent D-form) cannot be produced naturally, so that suggest a supernatural act. The sugars and amino acids in water would also decompose.
B. VERY IMPORTANT (*****). The early environment had gases in the air, but evolution theoreticians have said that oxygen (O2) probably would not have been there because oxygen is very destructive to compounds. Without oxygen, though, there would not have been any ozone (O3), so the very destructive ultra-violet light from the sun would not have been filtered down. The heat from the sun would have been very destructive, too. I would have de-natured the DNA compounds. It would have been very difficult to produce any kind of meaningful DNA or protein.
C. Meaningful information is produced at the gene site. Any kind of re-arrangement of the DNA code would result in a mutation. Three billion cells (As, Ts, Cs, and Gs) are replaced in the human body everyday. Those cells must be copied to the new cells everyday, and copying errors can happen. However, the enzymes in the body repair the mistakes. Ten billion base pairs compose the forty-six chromosomes, and every one must be in just the right place for the body to be correct. The probability of forming one molecule of DNA is 1 chance in 10^(89,190).
D. The largest library in the world has ten million volumes, and the DNA contains much more information (ten billion base pairs). The probability of producing one molecule of DNA is very, very low, even impossible, but what is the probability of getting intelligent, useful information on the DNA?
E. Gaylord Simpson (a renowned neo-Darwinist) said that the formation of one cell seems improbable, but it must have happened at least one time since we are here. Evolutionists will not throw away their belief even though the data does not support their belief.
F. DNA is not life. It needs the organelles of the cell to carry out the activities of the cell. Endoplasmic Reticulum (inside the network) - this gets a transportation system for the cell.
G. Life is a code describing an urge for self-maintenance and perpetuation of an organism. The code replicates itself, expresses itself, and perform a function. DNA needs to be replicated. A polymer is a compound composed of long chains. Biomonomers are things like amino acids.
H. VERY IMPORTANT (*****). Current list of objections to evolution: (1) ultraviolet light is destructive, (2) oxygen would have been destructive if present, (3) heat from sun would have produced hydrogen peroxide (photolysis), (4) cosmic rays from sun, (5) L-forms cannot be produced naturally, (6) D-forms of sugars cannot be produced naturally, (7) one hundred percent L-forms and D-forms would have both decomposed into fifty-fifty mix, (8) nucleitides decompose in water , and (9) sugar, and amino acids decompose in water. Check paragraph 8J below.
I. The Law of Mass Action says that things try to go from the highest concentration to the lowest until a state of equilibrium is reached. Natural processes would almost certainly have failed to overcome the Law of Mass Action. New material cannot be produced. Keeson (biochemist) says that condensation reactions would be thermodynamically forbidden in the premordial soup. The Principle of Thermodynamics says that things deteriorate and decay to lesser forms. The sun is burning out. Things deteriorate and break down on their own. Blum says that the Law of Probability would forbid things from going to the right to the product and successful evolution. To overcome these things, you need energy from an outside source, and then, the energy would have to be removed to keep from destroying the product.
J. VERY IMPORTANT (*****). Amino acids cannot organize into proteins based on this lesson. (10) the Law of Mass Action leads to equilibrium, (11) the Laws of Probability, and (12) the The Second Law of Thermodynamics. These should be added to the above list in paragraph (8H).
(1) According to the "Webster's NewWorld Dictionary," the Law of Mass Action is "the law that the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the concentrations of the reactants."
(2) In the "Hutchinson Dictionary of Scientific Biography" on "Berthollet, Claude Louis,", it says, "He proposed that reactivity depends on the masses of the reactants (similar to the modern law of mass action) but that the composition of the product or products can vary, depending on the proportions of the reacting substances."
(3) According to the "The Columbia Encyclopedia, Seventh Edition" on the Second Law of Thermodynamics, "A cyclic process is one that returns the system, but not the environment, to its original state."
Tom of Bethany "He that hath the Son hath life; and he that hath not the Son of God hath not life." (I John 5:12)
Index to Selected Essays And Book Reviews
APOL 290 - The History of Life (Lessons 9-16)
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