FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Processes
1. Ventilation
2. External respiration
3. Gas transport
4. Internal respiration
5. Cellular respiration
Zones and divisions
1. Conduction zone
2. Respiratory zone
3. Upper respiratory system
4. Lower respiratory system
Nose
1. Function
2. External nose
-a. Root
-b. Bridge
-c. Dorsum nasi
-d. Apex
-e. External nares
-f. Alae
3. Nasal cavity
-a. Nasal septum
-b. Posterior nares
-c. Roof
-d. Palate
-e. Vibrissae
-f. Olfactory mucosa
-g. Conchae
-h. Meatus
-i. Mucosa
-j. Venous plexus
4. Paranasal sinuses
Pharynx
1. Nasopharynx
-a. Pharyngotympanic tube
2. Oropharynx
3. Laryngopharynx
4. Mucosa -
Larynx
1. Cartilage
-a. Thyroid cartilage
-b. Cricoid cartilage
-c. Smaller cartilages
-d. Epiglottis
2. Mucosal folds
-a. Vestibular fold
-b. Vocal fold
-c. Voice production
3. Mucosa
4. Glottis
5. Swallowing
Trachea
1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Adventia
4. Hyaline cartilage
5. Trachealis muscle
6. Esophagus
Bronchial tree
1. Primary bronchi
-a. Hilus
2. Secondary bronchi
3. Tertiary bronchi
4. Bronchioles
5. Terminal bronchioles
6. Tissue composition
-a. Cartilage
-b. Epithelium
-c. Smooth muscle
Respiratory zone
1. Respiratory bronchioles
2. Alveolar duct
3. Alveolar sac
4. Alveoli
Respiratory membrane
1. Type I cells
-a. Pulmonary capillaries
-b. Respiratory membrane
-c. External respiration -
2. Type II cells
-a. Surfactant
3. Elastic fibers
4. Alveolar pores
5. Dust cells
Lungs
1. Root
2. Costal surface
3. Base
4. Hilus
5. Cardiac notch
6. Lobes
-a. Right lung
-b. Left lung
7. Fissures
-a. Right lung
-b. Left lung
8. Bronchopulmonary segment
9. Lobule
10. Stroma -
Blood supply to lungs\
1. Pulmonary circulation
-a. Pulmonary arteries
-b. Pulmonary capillary -
-c. Pulmonary veins -
2. Bronchial circulation
-a. Bronchial arteries
-b. Alveoli
-c. Bronchial veins
Innervation of the lung
1. Pulmonary plexus
2. Parasympathetic fibers
3. Sympathetic fibers
The pleura
1. Parietal pleura
2. Visceral pleura
3. Pleural fluid
4. Pleural cavity
5. Surface tension
6. Pleurisy
MECHANICS OF BREATHING
Pressure relationship in thoracic cavity
1. Intrapulmonary pressure
2. Intrapleural pressure
3. Pneumothrorax -
Pulmonary ventilation: inspiration and expiration
1. Volume, pressure, flow relationships
2. Boyles law
Inspiration
1. Quiet inspiration
2. Inspiratory muscles
-a. Diaphragm
-b. Intecostal
3. Pressure/volume changes
-a. Volume
-b. Intrapulmonary pressure
4. Deep forced respiration
Expiration
1. Quiet expiration
2. Inspiratory muscles
3. Lung recoils
4. Intrapulmonary pressure
5. Forced expiration
Physical factors influencing pulmonary ventilation
1. Resistance
2. Alveolar surface tension
3. Lung compliance
Resistance
1. F=ΔP/R
2. Conducting tube diameter
3. Bronchioles
-a. Smooth muscle
-b. Parasympathetic stimulation
4. Accumulations
Alveolar surface tension forces
1. Water molecules
2. Type II alveolar cells
3. Surfactant
4. Infant respiratory distress syndrome
Lung compliance
1. Elasticity
2. Factors reducing lung compliance
-a. Fibrosis
-b. Mucus
-c. Costal cartilage ossification
Respiratory volumes
1. Tidal volume
2. Inspiratory reserve volume
3. Expiratory reserve volume
4. Residual volume
Respiratory capacities
1. Total lung capacity
2. Vital capacity
3. Inspiratory capacity
4. Functional residual capacity
Dead space
1. Anatomical dead space
2. Alveolar dead space
3. Total dead space
Pulmonary function
1. Spirometer
2. Forced expiratory volume
-a. Obstructive pulmonary disease
3. Forced vital capacity
-a. Restrictive pulmonary disease
Nonrespiratory air movement
1. Coughing
2. Sneezing
3. Crying
4. Laughing
5. Hiccup
6. Yawn
GAS EXCHANGES IN THE BODY
Composition of air
1. Mixture of gases
2.
3. Partial pressure
4. PN2
5. PO2
6. PCO2-
7. PH2O
-
Air water interface
1. Henrys law
2. Solubility differences
-a. Carbon dioxide
-b. Oxygen
-c. Nitrogen -
Composition of alveolar gas
1. P02
2. PCO2
External respiration
1. Partial pressure gradient
-a. Entering blood PO2
-b. Alveolar PO2
-c. Leaving blood PO2
-d. Entering blood PCO2
-e. Alveolar PCO2
-f. Leaving blood PCO2
2. Perfusion-ventilation coupling
3. Respiratory membrane structure -
Internal respiration
1. Oxygen exchange
-a. Entering blood PO2
-b. Tissue PO2
-c. Leaving blood PO2
2. Carbon dioxide exchange
-a. Entering blood PCO2
-b. Tissue PCO2
-c. Leaving blood PCO2
TRANSPORTATION OF RESPIRATORY GASES
Oxygen Transport
Association / dissociation of oxygen and hemoglobin
1. Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) -
2. Reduced hemoglobin (HHb)
3. Cooperation
Influences of PO2
on hemoglobin saturation
1. Oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve
2. Oxygen content
3. Arterial blood
4. Venous blood -
Other factors influencing hemoglobin saturation
1. High metabolism
2. Temperature
3. PCO2
4. pH decrease H+
5. Bohr effect
6. BPG
Impaired oxygen transport
1. Hypoxia
2. Anemic hypoxia
3. Ischemic (stagnant) hypoxia
4. Histotoxic hypoxia
5. Hypoxemic (hypoxic) hypoxia
Carbon Dioxide Transport
Mode of transport
1. Dissolved
2. Carbaminohemoglobin
-a. Globin binding
-b. Haldane effect
-c. Bohr effect
3. Bicarbonate ion
-a. Blood
-b. RBC carbonic anhydrase
Bicarbonate transport
1. Tissue
-a. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
-b. Carbonic anhydrase
-c. Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
-d. Bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)
-e. Chloride shift (Cl-)
2. Lungs
-a. Bicarbonate ion (HCO3- )
-b. Chloride shift (Cl-)
-c. Carbonic acid (H2CO3)
-d. Carbonic anhydrase
-e. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
CONTROL OF RESPIRATION (VENTILATION)
1. Inspiratory area
-a. Eupnea
2. Expiratory area
3. Pneumotaxic center
-a Pontine respiratory group.
4. Apneustic center
5. Irritant reflexes
6. Hering-Breuer reflex
7. Hypothalamus
8. Cortical control
Chemical factors
1. Central chemoreceptors
2. Peripheral chemoreceptors
3. High PCO2
-a. Hypercapnia
-b. Peripheral chemoreceptors
-c. Central chemoreceptors
-d. Hyperventilation -
4. Low PCO2
-a. Hypocapnia
-b. Hypoventilation
-c. Apnea
5. Very low PO2
6. Low arterial pH -
EXERCISE AND HIGH ALTITUDE ADJUSTMENTS
Exercise
1. Ventilation
2. Hyperpnea
3. Neural factors
4. Oxygen debt
High altitudes
1. Acute mountain sickness (AMS)
-a. Symptoms
2. Acclimatization
-a. Respiratory
-b. Hematopoietic
RESPIRATORY DISORDERS
Common infections
1. Laryngitis
2. Rhinitis
3. Flu
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
1. Symptoms
2. Emphysema
3. Chronic bronchitis
Bronchial asthma
1. Symptoms
2. Causes
3. Treatment
Tuberculosis
1. Symptoms
2. Mycobacterium
tuberculosis
3. Primary infection
4. Compromised immunity
5. Epidemiology
6. Treatment
Lung Cancer
1. Squamous cell carcinoma
2. Adenocarcinoma
3. Small (oat) cell carcinoma