Ancient Maya history is necessarily beset with grey areas... manifold possibilities, probabilities, likelihoods, hypotheticals... based on theories new and old... supported by ‘evidence’. Such evidence is drawn from a variety of disciplines and sources... archeology, anthropology, geography, history and others. Data is gathered in a variety of ways... via practices that include the examination of pottery and fragments... tentative interpretation of glyphs... carbon dating of objects... comparison of artistic styles across time and space... analysis of ancient chronicles and modern practices. There is more unknown than known about ancient Maya history. Everything is a vague fitting puzzle... constantly open to new additions and revisions... it is theory and theory only... presented by the ‘known’ facts... some meagre representation of ‘truth’. The following article, therefore, provides only a rough and probably dated overview of the subject. It is drawn from ‘The Ancient Maya’ by Sylvanus Morley (4th ed)... that is the source.
The history of the Maya people must be seen in its geographical context... contained by the natural boundaries that necessarily contributed to its development. Maya country occupies the southern most region of Mexico... Chiapas, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo... then Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador and the western fringes of Honduras. It extends as far north as the Gulf of Mexico and as far south as the Pacific. East-West boundaries are defined by the termination of linguistic zones and archeological remains... In the West at the Chiapan highlands, in the East around the ruins of Copan. Very broadly speaking, the ancient Mayas occupied three zones in the aforementioned territory... moving from south to north... The pacific coastal plain, the higlands, the lowlands. Each region was culturally distinct and each peaked at differing points of Maya evolution. Temperature, altitude, rainfall and soil types are diverse accross these regions... they all differ greatly in terms of geographical content.
The Pacific coastal plain is hot and subject to high levels of rainfall. It is characterised by stretches of water... lagoons, rivers, and lakes set beneath forest cover to the north. This area was useful for cacao plantation (cacao was currency to the Maya), salt extraction and as a base for control of trade routes... those northward flowing rivers. The next geographic zone, the highlands, can be subdivided into southern and northern. The southern highlands are occupied by a highly active volcanic belt that stretches west to east. Ash has rendered the soil highly fertile... the basins and valleys are ideal for agricultural exploitation. The region is also rich in obsidian and basaltic rock. The temperature is predominantly temperate. The northern highlands are consumed by older metamorphic rock... moving increasingly into limestone as one ventures north. The area conceals jadeite and serpentine resources. Temperatures range from cold to hot at lower lying regions. The final ‘geographical zone’ comprises the lowlands... southern, central, northern... mostly pine and rain forest with the manifold plant and animal resources that these imply. The southern lowlands are hot and characterised by high rainfall. Rivers and drainage basins provide year round water sources. The central lowlands are occupied by semi rainforest but possesses a thin topsoil that is almost impossible to cultivate to agricultural ends. The northern lowlands are largely flat and hot... wells in the limestone shelf serve to collect water for the dry season. All these geographical distinctions, these ‘zones’, are necessarily abitrary... in reality, the land changes by rather more subtle degrees.
The origins and development of Maya civilisation must be considered as a dynamic process and in the context of wider mesoamerican culture. The common theory of origin holds that the first inhabitants migrated accross the Bering Straight at around 40,000 to 20,000 BC. Their ‘Lithic’ society was characterised by a nomadic culture of hunting and gathering along with the use of simple tools. Around 6000 to 2000 BC, the ‘Archaic’ period of human development predominated in Mesoamerica. Archaic groups are characterised as settled communities with some domestic plants and animals... they have learned to utilise seasonal cycles for agricultural purposes. Most traces of Mesoamerican archaic communities have been found around lagoons near the Carribbean and Pacific. Following the archaic, the Preclassic dominates from 2000BC to 250 AD. This era has been defined as one possessing groups ‘sufficiently complex so as to be called societies’. Here, economic and religious institutions have been founded along with a system of chiefdom. The Olmecs are the most renowned of preclassic Mesoamerican peoples. The Classic period occupies the years 250 – 900 AD. During this time, several states rise to power... there is a high degree of political organisation... an elite group with social bodies to sanction authority... an army and police force. This era was dominated by several centres including Palenque and Tikal. The Post Classic era, 900 – 1500 AD, sees the rise of ever more complex and powerful states... it is an era largely dominated by Toltec and Mexica cultures.
Early development, that is from the archaic through to the Preclassic, was most precocious upon the coasts. Over time, people gradually moved inland... the highlands being the last area to settle (highland agriculture would take many lifetimes to master). Little is known of these early peoples... the archeological evidence is scant and points mainly to the Olmecs... arguably the first of the preclassic races to display ‘civilised’ attributes. Between 1150 to 900 BC, San Lorenzo was transformed from a ceremonial center into a city... the hilltop was leveled and flattened and great buildings constructed upon it. A theocratic order was established... a chiefdom... through which the Olmecs sought to control tributes, trades and resources at a local and wider level. It is argued by some that the Olmecs were the ‘mother’ race of later mesoamerican civilisations... that they imparted the knowledge, practices and ideology that would form the foundation of future flourishing peoples. It should be noted that the academics are not unified upon this notion and the Olmecs essential remain enigmatic. They are mentioned here only in passing.
Before examining the preclassic era in detail, it is necessary to consider the causes and catalytic factors that drove the Mayas to ‘civilise’... to make the move from archaic to preclassic. We should ask what gave force and direction to the dynamic of development. Firstly, there is the issue of ecological adaptation... the utilisation of ever more sophisticated forms of farming. As the early people moved from swidden agriculture (slash and burn) to more intensive forms of farming (those involving terracing, drainage and fertilisation, for example) there would have been a significant growth in the population... ever greater supplies of food would have been available. Secondly, one should consider the role of ideology. As a coherent system of beliefs developed, this would have aided in cementing society together... it would also have paved the way for an emerging theocratic elite. The ideology of the early people developed out of the shaman’s world view. Thirdly, the crucial point of trade and market must be noted. The Mayas were ideally located as middle men between Mexico and Central America... they did in fact later come to control long distance trade routes between these regions. In addition, the entire region was rich in many resources... jadeite, obsidian, salt and quetzal feathers to name a few. Over time, market places would have developed along side ceremonial centres. The development of such centralised market places aided economic unity and independence... this in turn acted as a stimulus for futher social organisation and development. Such market places would have tied surrounding villages to the emerging elite that controlled them. Finally, the notion of competition must be considered as a catalyst for development. As land and resources grew scarce, market/religious centres would have competed for economic and hegemonic control of villages. Armies would have developed for the purpose of attack and defense... a warrior class would have emerged... societies would have grown more complex and powerful. In summary, ecological adaptation, development of ideology, growth of trade and local competition were all contributing factors to the rise of Maya society.