Chapter 12: Personality What is personality?   In the U.S. it is defined as the unique and relatively stable patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions.   In certain other cultures, context is believed to impact personality a lot more. Testing personality:   Personality tests have to be valid and reliable.   Barnum statements: descriptions so general they cannot miss the target. Influential theories:   Psychoanalytic approach: dark view of personality illustrated by the conflict of opposing forces.      Id is the “demon” driven by the immediate pleasure principle.      Superego is the “angel” with high morals.      Ego has to find the balance between the id and superego to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.          This generates anxiety, which has to be reduced through the use of various defense mechanisms.             These mechanisms are efficient in the short run, but can lead to more serious disorders in the long run.      Freud's theory is based on a biased sample of the population => it is not valid.      Nonetheless, he was a pioneer in studying the unconscious and the importance of early childhood experiences.