Page 247 nature, attempts to understand, 13– 15 overthrow of, 15 royal family, fate of, 19 writing during, 13–15 Shanghai, 6, 7, 125, 129, 132, 133, 134, 138, 153, 173, 181, 182 Chiang Kai-shek’s bloody anti-communist crackdown in, 132 Japan’s 1932 attack on, 134 Shanghai Baobei (Shanghai Baby), 6 Shanxi province, 10 shanyu, 57, 58 Shanyuan Treaty, 77, 80 shelter, myth of invention of, 12 Shen Gua, 96 Shen Nong, 12 Shengyuan, degree in examination system, 90, 119, 125 Shenzhen, 168 Shiji, 53, 54 Imperial China’s model history, 54 Shun, 12, 35 Siam. See Thailand Siberia, 1 Sichuan Basin, 5 Sichuan province, 10, 137, 140 “Sick Man of Asia,” China after Opium War, 105 silk, 12, 102 British desire for Chinese, 102 myth of invention by the Yellow Emperor’s wife, 12 silk, annual payment by Song to Liao, 77 Silk Road, 1, 68 Silla dynasty (Korea), 72 silver, annual payment by Song to Liao, 77 Sima Qian, 49, 52, 53, 54, 55, 66 castration by Wudi, 54 dedication to historical writing, 54 description of Xiongnu, 55 writes Shiji, 52, 53–54 simplicity, Taoist virtue of, 28, 29 Singapore, 9 slave society, Marxist-Leninist concept of, 128 Slavic civilization, 11 slogans, 126 smallpox inoculations, Chinese invention of, 97 Snow, Edgar, 163 social Darwinism, 126 socialism, 126, 147, 153 Mao’s theoretical attachment to, 147, 153 “socialism with Chinese characteristics,” 182 socialist society, Marxist-Leninist concept of, 128, 130 Son of Heaven, term used for Chinese emperors, 19 Song Chuyu. See Soong, James Song dynasty, 70, 73–79, 81, 87, 89, 95, 97 “barbarian” states on borders of, 77 centralization of governmental and military authority during, 75, 77 decline of Buddhism among elite during, 81 examination system during, 76 fall of, 79 fear of foreigners during, 79 founding of, 74 Northern Song, 960–1127, 78 Qin Gui’s opposition to Yue Fei, 78 Southern Song, 1127–1279, 78 vassal status, 78–79 war with Jurchens, 78 weakening of military during, 75 Yue Fei’s campaigns against Jurchens, 78 Song Qiang, 200 Song Taizong, 77 Song Taizu. See Taizu Song Zhenzong, 77 Soong, James (Song Chuyu), 196 South Korea, 9, 145, 146, 147. See also Korea; North Korea ranked by Freedom House as ‘‘free” in 1988, 9 Page 248 Southern Song, 78 soviets, 133, 134 Jiangxi, 133, 134 Soviet Union, Soviets, 8, 129, 130, 131, 132, 146, 148, 149, 152, 154, 162, 163, 170, 184, 200 chooses Sun Yat-sen as “bourgeois” revolutionary, 131–131 disintegration of, 184 Mao’s view of, 162 Sun Yat-sen turns to for assistance, 131 U.S.-Chinese relations worsen after disintegration of, 184 Special Economic Zones, 168 speech, freedom of, 5, 6 Standing Committee, of Chinese Communist Party, 8, 137, 163 starvation, 151–152, 198 State Council, 6 states (guo), 19, 20, 28 ideal Taoist, 28 increased fighting between during Eastern Zhou times, 20 steel production, 150 Stilwell, Joseph, 140 stirrups, 65–66 Chinese invention of, 65–66 military use of, 65 student protests. See May Fourth Movement; May Fourth Protest; Tiananmen Square Massacre Su Song, 96 Sui dynasty, 63, 67–68 comparison with Qin, 67 construction of Grand Canal, 67 low taxes of first Sui emperor, 67 reunifies China after Period of Division, 67 Yangdi, 68 Sui Ren, 12 Sui Yangdi. See Yangdi Sumerian civilization, 11, 95 Summer Palace (Yuanming Yuan), 106 Sung, ancient state of, 35 Sunzi. See Sun-tzu Sun-tzu, 42 Sun Yat-sen, 109, 112, 113, 118–122, 129, 130, 131, 132, 192 allows communist to join his Nationalist Party (Kuomintang), 131 antagonism toward Kang Youwei, 119 as bourgeois revolutionary, 130–131 contacts with Chinese secret societies, 119, 121 desires to reform China, 118–119 determination to overthrow Manchu Qing, 119, 120 early life of, 118 education of, 118 kidnapping in London, 119 The Revolutionary Army helps his cause, 119–120 submission to Yuan Shikai, 121 turns to Soviet Union for assistance, 131 supernatural, Confucius’s attitudes toward, 23 Supreme People’s Court, 7 lack of independence of, 7 suspension bridge, Chinese invention of, 64 sutras, 63 suzerainty, 93 Swahili Coast, 88 Taiping Rebellion, 107–110, 118 accelerated imperialism after, 109 admired by Sun Yat-sen and Chinese communists, 109 regarded as heterodox by Confucian traditionalists, 109 reservations of Christian missionaries about, 108 Taiwan, 7, 9, 19, 111, 144, 147, 151, 152, 163, 171, 172, 183, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 202. See also Republic of China 2000 election in, 195–196 Page 249 anti-American riots in, 191 arms sales to by U.S., 171 as Chinese territory, 7 ceded to Japan, 111 Chinese communists in, 147, 194– 195, 197–198 democratization of, 192–193, 197 February 28 Incident in, 189–190 first democratic election of national leader in Chinese history in, 194 independence movement in, 195–196, 197 Jiang Zemin’s desire to subjugate, 196–197, 198 liberalization begun, 192 oppressive rule by Chiang Kaishek, 189, 190–191 possible application of “one country, two systems” principle to, 172, 196 as potential flashpoint in U.S.-Chinese relations, 189 progression in rankings by Freedom House, 9 ranked as ‘‘Free” by Freedom House, 9 retroceded to China after World War II, 189 U.S. Seventh Fleet protects, 195 use of missiles, 194 Taiwan Relations Act, 171 Taiwan Strait, 195, 198 Taizong, 72, 73, 86 death of, 73 submission of Turks to, 72 Taizu, 74–76 anti-aristocratic policies of, 76 campaigns against Kitans, 74 death of, 77 expansion of examination system by, 76 reunification of most of China, 74 weakening of military by, 74–75 Tanaka Kakuei, 140 Tang dynasty, 63, 65, 68–73, 76, 79, 81, 87, 88, 95, 96 administration of, 70–71 An Lushan rebellion, 69, 71 Buddhism flourishes during, 63 equal fields system, 71 examination system, 70 fall of, 70, 73 founding of, 68 government, 70 land tenure system, 71 relations with Turks, 72–73 taxation, 71 territorial extent of, 68 Tang-Song transition, 82–84 Tang Taizong. See Taizong Tang Xuanzong. See Xuanzong tao, 25, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33, 34 beyond words, 28 how influences moral behavior, 28 meaning of, 25 superiority over law, 28 Tao, Jingshen, 79 Taoism, 25–32, 31, 32, 63, 66 artistic expression and, 31–32 Buddhism and, 63 compared and contrasted with Confucianism, 32–34 interpersonal relations based on, 31 military strategy and, 32 political philosophy of, 31 Tao-te ching (Daodejing), 25–28, divisions of, 26 origins of, 26 paradox in, 26–27 simplicity and profundity of, 25–26 Tatars, 9 taxation, agricultural, 46, 51, 67, 68, 71, 83 taxation, commercial, 83 tea, 4, 102 British desire for Chinese, 102 technology, 39–43, 64–66, 78, 95–97. See also inventions and discoveries Temujin, 85 Ten Kingdoms, 74 terra cotta figurines, in Qin Shihuang’s tomb, 49, 50 Page 250 Teutonic civilization, 11 textiles, 116 textual scholarship, 94–95 Thailand, 9, 93, Three Hundred Tang Poems, 71 Three Kingdoms period, 60–63 Three Principles of the People, 119, 131 Three-Self Patriotic Church, 184. See also house churches; Protestants Tiananmen Papers, The, 204 Tiananmen Square, 144, 156, 163, 164, 174–180 Goddess of Democracy statue erected in by protesting students in 1989, 179 Mao meets Red Guards in, 156 Mao proclaims founding of People’s Republic of China in, 144 memorial for Zhou Enlai in, 164 Tiananmen Square Massacre (June 4 Massacre), 174–180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 186, 188 27th Army’s role in, 180 martial law declared in Beijing prior to, 178 tenth anniversary of, 188 Tianjin (Tientsin), 7, 104, 106, 116 Tibet, 7, 89, 93, 184 Buddhism, 89 endangered culture of, 7 Han Chinese flooding, 7 international concern over China’s misgovernment of, 188 lack of religious and political freedom in, 7 oppression and abuse of human rights in, 184 Tibetan Plateau, 3 Tibetans (as ethnic group within China), 9, 10 Tientsin. See Tianjin Tigris River, 3 Tongmenghui. See United Chinese League trace harness, Chinese invention of, 40 trade, 93–94, 102, 103, 203 allowed in connection with Qing tributary system, 93–94 balance of between China and Britain, 102, 103 transportation networks, 28 travel, to China historically difficult, 1 treaty ports, 106 Treaty of Nanking, 99, 105, 106, 171 as beginning of China’s Century of Humiliation, 105 Treaty of Shimonoseki, 111 loss of Taiwan to Japan, 111 Treaty of Tientsin, 106 Treaty of Wanghsia, 105 Treaty of Whampoa, 105 tributary system, 57, 58–59, 92–94 acceptance by Xiongnu, 59 benefits of, 93–94 between Han and Xiongnu, 57 elements of, 58–59 long resisted by Xiongnu, 59 Qing, 92 Wudi’s desire to replace intermarriage system with, 57 tributes, 59, 101 Qing view of Lord Macartney bearing, 101 Xiongnu required to pay to Han, 59 Trudeau, Pierre Elliot, 163 Truman, Harry, 146, 147 Turks, 55, 58, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73 conquest by Uighurs, 73 earliest homeland of, 68 part in quelling An Lushan rebellion, 73 relations with Tang, 72, 73 Turkey, 103 Twenty-one Demands, 122, 125 acceptance by Yuan Shikai, 122 Two Sons of Heaven: Studies in Sung-Liao Relations,79 Uighurs (as ethnic group within China), 9, 176 Uighurs (historical), 70, 73 Page 251 uncarved block, Taoist metaphor for simplicity, 29 unequal treaties, 105 unification, Qin, 46–47 United Chinese League (Tongmenghui), 121 United Front, First. See First United Front United Front, Second. See Second United Front United Kingdom. See Britain, British United Nations, 145, 146, 162, 163, 182, 191 expulsion of Nationalists from and admission of Chinese Communists to, 162–163, 191 United States, 103, 105, 117, 120, 121, 124, 125, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 144, 146, 147, 157, 158, 162, 163, 169, 170, 172, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 191, 193, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204 Chinese Communists’ suspicion and resentment of, 185 Chinese students’ love-hate attitudes toward, 188 Deng Xiaoping’s visit to, 170 Mao’s view of, 162 possible involvement in war in Taiwan Strait, 198 recognition of the People’s Republic of China in 1979, 191 riots against in Taiwan, 191 Uzbekistan, 65 Vatican, 184 Versailles, Versailles Peace Conference, 127, 128 precipitates May Fourth protests, 127 Vietnam, 93, 109, 170–171 China’s invasion of, 170–171 Voitinsky, Grigory, 129 Waldron, Arthur, 48 Waley, Arthur, 25 walls, Taoist view of as unnatural, 28 Wang Dan, 177–178, 181 Wang Jingwei, 132 Wang Mang, 52, 59, 60 Wang Shouren, 81 xin (heart/mind) in thought of, 81 Wang Xiaodong, 200 Wang Yang-ming. See Wang Shouren war, Shang dynasty conduct and purpose of, 14 warlords, 60, 70, 123, 126, 130, 132 Warring States period, 40, 42, 43 water power, harnessing of, 64 waterwheel, Chinese invention of, 64 weapons, 42–43, 110 Wei River, 45 weights and measures, Qin unification of, 46 Wen Wang. See King Wen Western Jin dynasty, 60 Western Mongols, 89 Western Zhou dynasty, 17, 20, 21, 52 Confucius’s idealization of, 21 disintegration of, 20 Wang Mang’s attempts to restore institutions of, 52 Wilson, Woodrow, 127 wine, 75 wives, 57 women, 83, 108 Wong, Jan, 179–180 eyewitness to Tiananmen Square Massacre, 179–180 woodblock printing, Chinese invention of, 96 work unit. See danwei World War I, 43, 126, 127, 128 World War II, 134, 139–141, 189 writing, early Chinese, 12–15 archaeological search for earliest, 12 earliest specimens of, 12 myth of invention by Cang Jie, 12 Wu Peifu, 130 Wu Wang. See King Wu Wuchang, 118, Wudi, 51, 52, 53, 54, 57, 58 campaigns against Xiongnu, 52 Page 252 castration of Sima Qian, 54 expansionist and confrontational policies of, 51 policies against merchants, 51 Wuer Kaixi, 176, 177–178, 180 Wuhan, 109, 121, 132 xenophobia, 10, 88, 116, 199, 200 Boxer, 116 Xia dynasty, 11–15 xian, level of examination system, 89 Xi’an, 50, 138, Xi’an Incident, 138–139 Xiang Yu, 50 xin (heart/mind), 81 Xin dynasty, 52 Xinjiang, 7, 8, 93 Han Chinese flooding into, 8 Xiongnu (Huns), 47, 52, 53, 54–60, 61, 68 defeat of Liu Bang, 57 Han campaigns against, 54–60 intermarriage system between Han dynasty and, 57 objectives of Wudi’s military strategy against, 58 rise to power during Qin, 57 submission to Han dynasty by 54 B.C., 58 Wudi’s campaigns against, 52, 54–58 Xiucai, colloquial term for Shengyuan (q.v.), 90 Xuanzong, 69 Xunzi, 24–25, 34 concept of human nature, 25 Yalu River, 146 Yan Xuetong, 202 Yan’an, 134, 136, 138, 141, 144, 149, 152 Yang Guifei, 69 Yangdi, 68 Yangtze (Yangzi) River, 3, 5, 49, 105, 108, 140, 155 benefits to China of, 5 navigability of, 5 Yangzi River. See Yangtze River Yao, 12, 35 Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), 12 yellow peril, 118, 199 Yellow River, 1, 3, 4, 5, 49, 52, 116 benefits and harm to China of, 3, 4 dikes of, 3; broken during Wang Mang’s reign, 52 flooding and overrunning of, 3 navigability of, 3 yellow robe, 74 Yellow Sea, 3 Yellow Turban Rebellion, 60 Yelü Chucai, 85 Yongle emperor, 88, 89 You Chao shi, 12 Yü (the Great), 12 Yuan dynasty, 79, 84, 86, 87, 95, 121 decline of, 86 fall of, 87 founding of, 79, 86 Four books, canonization of during, 87 Yuan Shikai, 121, 122, 123, 124, 130 acceptance of Twenty-one Demands by, 122 dismantling of Republic of China by, 122–123 monarchical ambitions of, 122–123 Sun Yat-sen’s submission to, 121 Yuanming Yuan. See Summer Palace Yue Fei, 78 Yunnan, 10 yurts, 54 Zen Buddhism. See Chan Buddhism Zeng Gongliang, 95 Zeng Guofan, 109, 110 zero, ancient Chinese understanding and use of, 42. See also place holder Zhang Heng, 66 Zhang Xueliang, 138–139 Zhang Zuolin, 133 Zhao Kuangyin, (Song Taizu), 74 Zhao Ziyang, 168, 173, 176, 177, 178, 181 Page 253 Zhejiang province, 10 Zheng He (Cheng Ho), 88 Zhenzong. See Song Zhenzong Zhou, Duke of. See Duke of Zhou Zhou, region of Shang China, 17, 18, 19 Zhou dynasty, 17–43, 52 Eastern Zhou, 20 Western Zhou, 17–20 Zhou Enlai, 133, 154, 157, 163, 164, 170 death of, 164 Four Modernizations proclaimed by, 164, 170 as Mao’s heir apparent, 163 Zhu De, 133, 135 Zhuang, 9 Zhuangzi (Chuang-tzu), 37–39 disdain for Mo-ism, 37–39 Zhukesi. See Bureau of Receptions Zhu Rongji, 6 Zhu Xi, 81 Zhu Yuanzhang, 50, 87–88 early life of, 87 “Ming despotism” and, 87 paranoia and suspicion of, 87– 88 Zou Rong, 119–120 Zunyi conference, 137 Zuo Zongtang, 109 Page 254 This page intentionally left blank. Page 255 About the Author DAVID CURTIS WRIGHT is Assistant Professor of History at the University of Calgary, in Alberta, Canada. Page 256 This page intentionally left blank. Page 257 Other Titles in the Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations Frank W. Thackeray and John E. Findling, Series Editors The History of Spain Peter Pierson The History of Germany Eleanor L. Turk The History of Holland Mark T. Hooker The History of Nigeria Toyin Falola The History of Brazil Robert M. Levine The History of Russia Charles E. Ziegler The History of Portugal James M. Anderson The History of Poland M.B. Biskupski The History of Mexico Burton Kirkwood The History of South Africa Roger B. Beck The History of France W. Scott Haine The History of Iran Elton L. Daniel
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