Metropolitan Los Angeles: Its Governments,
Book by Helen L. Jones, Robert F. Wilcox; Haynes Foundation, 1949

Chapter I An Introduction to Metropolitan Los Angeles

"All political power is inherent in the people. Government is instituted for the protection, security, and benefit, of the people; and they have the right to alter or reform the same, whenever the public good may require it."

California State Constitutions of 1849 and 1879, Article I, Section 2.

One of the most inspiring sights one could witness is the panorama of light and color of the spreading cities and populated county area of the Los Angeles plain when observed from a point on the partially surrounding mountain formation, especially from Mount Wilson on a smogless night. To the uninformed in local government matters, this IS Los Angeles. To those who have been interested in metropolitan problems, there is seen only a checkerboard of governmental areas in the third largest metropolitan area in the United States. Here will be found forty-five cities, and fourteen denselypopulated areas separating and surrounding the cities.

The United States Census Bureau describes a metropolitan area as one having at least 50,000 population in a central or core city, and additional surrounding territory bringing the total population to at least 100,000. The Los Angeles metropolitan area thus has included the whole of the populated portion of Los Angeles County and parts of Orange and San Bernardino Counties. It contained 1,474 square miles, one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world. The 1950 census will consider all of Los Angeles and Orange Counties as the metropolitan area.

It is well to think of a metropolitan area as one within which there is a large daily movement of population to and from the suburban communities to the central city for business, pleasure, shopping, education, or other purposes. There are one hundred forty such metropolitan areas in the country and just about one-half of the nation's total population lives in these centers. Thus, we find that the metropolitan district is a collection of communities having a heavy density of population and entirely interdependent in economic, social, and political operations.

Physical Features

The purpose of this text is to examine only the governments entirely within the area of Los Angeles County. The terms "metropolitan area of Los Angeles" or "Metropolitan Los Angeles" as used in succeeding chapters refer to that part of the

Chapter II Types of Local Government

The legal basis for government in the American political system is a fundamental statement of authority known as a constitution. A constitution describes the structure of a government, defines its purposes, powers, and duties and imposes limitations upon its action. The state government and all local governments in California must obey the basic rules of conduct contained in the State Constitution.

Cities and counties are subdivisions of the State. They exist to perform certain duties for the State as well as to fulfill the needs and desires of local residents. The constitution fixes the general framework of local government, and cities and counties must conform to this pattern. State laws and local charters fill in the details. We must examine the constitution, and the laws passed by the State Legislature under its authority, in order to

A before-and after view of the Administrative Center in downtown Los Angeles. Above is the Center as it appeared in 1923. Below is the same area in 1949, with a number of new and imposing government buildings. Visible in the lower picture are the State Building, County Hall of Records, County Hall of Justice, Federal Building, and Los Angeles City Hall. The Terminal Annex Post Office and Union Station can be seen in the background, beyond the Federal Building. Spence Air Photos.

understand local government.

Constitutional Provisions

The first Constitution of the State of California, adopted in 1849, directed the legislature to establish or provide for the organization of a system of county and town governments, and for cities and villages. These local governments were to be as nearly uniform as practicable thoroughout the State. The constitution took steps to prevent abuses which would weaken their financial stability by authorizing the legislature to place restrictions on their power to borrow money, levy taxes, incur debts, and extend credit. Under these provisions of the constitution, the legislature passed hundreds of acts for the administration of local governments.

The present constitution, proclaimed in 1879, provides that cities, counties, and cities and counties may be formed and their boundaries fixed and altered under general and uniform laws, that is, laws applicable to the whole State. Since laws which satisfy large cities may not be at all suited to small cities, units of local government may be classified on the basis of population. Legislation must be uniform for all governments of the same class but not for all cities or counties in the State.

Chapter III The Citizen Votes: Elections and Political Parties

The Suffrage

American citizenship carries with it the rights and privileges of participating in the processes of government. To an even greater extent it carries the duties and responsibilities of vigilance in control of one's government. For most people, the most important method of participation and control is exercise of the right to vote. This right often is referred to as suffrage or the franchise.

Citizenship is established under the Constitution and laws of the United States, but the qualifications for voting are determined primarily by the states. The federal constitution imposes some controls on the states by forbidding them to deny anyone the right to vote on the basis of his race, color, or sex. There also are federal statutes which regulate certain phases of elections in which officers of the United States government are chosen.

The basic rules which determine who may vote and how elections are to be conducted are found in the constitution and laws of each state. Supplementary provisions are contained in local charters and ordinances. The conduct of an election, including the furnishing of ballots and polling places and counting the votes, is strictly a local duty, carried out by officials of counties, cities, and school and other types of special districts. Yet all elections, no matter where or for what purpose, are governed more or less by the same general rules and regulations.

Article II of the California Constitution on the Right of Suffrage guarantees to those who qualify under its provisions the right to exercise in secret the free expression of their opinions at the ballot box. Citizenship is an important qualification: one must be either a native-born citizen of the United States or must have become naturalized at least ninety days before an election. A minimum age is established: one must be twenty-one years of age or over. Residence in California is necessary:

A Polling Place. The voter writes his name and address; this is checked in the master registration book and on the voting list of the precinct. He is handed a ballot and the number of the ballot is recorded opposite his name. He goes into the voting booth and, in secret (unless he asks for help because of a disability), marks his ballot with a rubber stamp provided for that purpose. He returns, with his ballot folded, to the locked ballot box where the number on the corner of his ballot is torn off, the ballot deposited in the box, and his name and number checked to show that he has voted. The three women seated at the table in the photograph are the judges of election, and the woman standing is the inspector. Clerk of the Council, City of Los Angeles.

Chapter IV The People's Representatives at Work: Enactment of Law

The legislative power essentially is the power to decide major questions of policy and to enact these decisions into law. As law, legislative decisions are binding on everyone to whom they apply and are enforced by the government. The legislative power of the State is vested in the Senate and Assembly as a bicameral or two-house legislature. The unicameral or one-house legislative body of the county is the board of supervisors, and of the city is the council. These are representative bodies, the members of which are elected by the people to make policy on their behalf.

In our machinery for direct legislation, the people themselves have legislative power. The initiative permits citizens to propose laws or ordinances, and amendments to the constitution or local charters, and then to adopt or reject them at the polls. If adopted by the people, a measure goes into effect even if it has been turned down previously by the legislative body. The referendum gives the voters an opportunity to pass on any law or ordinance adopted by a legislative body. If they reject it, the measure does not become effective. This popular participation in legislation occurs in both State and local government.

Legislative Control Over Administration

We usually think of laws as legislative acts which govern human behavior. We are affected in our daily lives by thousands of these regulations. The way in which we do business, or drive an automobile, or conduct ourselves in public places, is regulated in detail by legislation. Our methods of regulating conduct by law, and of punishing those who violate the many rules, are the subject of frequent and heated debate. The question of whether or not gambling should be prohibited by law is an example of the issues which arise in this field of regulation of conduct. Another is control of intoxicating liquors.

There is another important phase of legislative activity about which less is heard. Laws which govern conduct have to be enforced, and the service functions which government is authorized to provide must be performed. There must be executives, policemen, school teachers, skilled craftsmen, laborers, engineers, and clerks--in short, there must be what is known as an administration.

With no thought of belittling legislators, it can be said that if government consisted only of a legislative body, it could not accomplish anything. The legislature must set up and regulate an ad-

Chapter V Administrative Officers and Services: Execution of Laws

The execution of the policies expressed in constitutions or charters, enacted by legislative bodies, or decided by vote of the people, falls upon two sets of governmental officers. The first set is made up of the chief executive and his administrative staff. The second consists of the heads of the operating departments, bureaus, or divisions which carry out certain specific functions of government. These officers, and the employees who work under their supervision, are engaged in administrative operations. Their purpose is to carry out the general directives of the legislature and the people. Their goal is efficient adminstration under democratic control.

We have just begun to appreciate the necessity for long-range planning of administrative programs, and a follow-up system of control to insure that plans are carried out. We now recognize the importance of scientific methods in administration, and the necessity for departments to work together in a coordinated program. Sound organization and good administrative procedure enable the chief executive to supervise his department effectively. Duplication of effort can be avoided, and the people can fix responsibility for poor performance.

The method of selecting chief executives and other administrative officers has been governed by the desire to secure the most capable public servants. We have been swinging more and more away from election and toward appointment as a means of securing people who have been trained by education or experience for their positions. The problems of organizing, staffing, and financing our governments, of relations between governments, and relations between governments and the people have expanded enormously in recent years.

We have been delegating more and more discretion to our chief executives and other administrative officers. They must have technical knowledge to make decisions which interpret and supplement the law. Many laws are vague and general in their language and need the interpretive mind of the chief executive, or even the decision of a court, to tell what the legislative body had in mind when it acted. Executives must be able to adjust the purpose of the law to changing conditions which the legislative body may not have been able to anticipate. They must be expert in human relationships and be able to convey ideas by the spoken and written word.

Glendale City Hall. Glendale News Press.

Chapter VI Management of Public Employees

Merit System

Quality of performance determines the success of operation in government, business, or in any other undertaking. The process of obtaining an adequate, well-trained, and efficient working force in government traditionally has been called the civil service system. More recently, we have substituted the term "merit" system to describe this procedure. Its basic steps include putting applicants for jobs in government service through a series of examinations or performance tests to determine their qualifications for particular positions or classes of work; rating their performance on the job; and determining their fitness for promotion.

Governments are among the largest employers of man power in the Los Angeles area. Taken together, governments operating in the Los Angeles area have more than 100,000 persons on their pay rolls. The number employed by the various units

Application for a civil service examination for the position of Supervising Clerk. The applicant states his qualifications and affirms his loyalty to the State and federal governments. Los Angeles County Civil Service Commission.

of government was estimated in 1949 to be as follows: federal, 35,000; Los Angeles city, 28,000; Los Angeles County, 24,000; Los Angeles City School Districts, 21,000; State of California, 8,000; other municipalities, 8,000; special districts and agencies, 2,000.

Salaries paid to these large numbers of employees make up the largest single expenditure of government. The total of salaries and wages consumes from 65 to 85 per cent of the annual expenses of most governmental departments.

The quantity and quality of government service depends upon several variable factors. First, the demand of the people for certain types and standards of service; second, the amount of money that the legislature or the people is willing to appropriate for each service; third, the method and success of obtaining competent executive and administrative officers to manage the many technical operations; and fourth, the recruitment of competent, well-qualified personnel to perform the many detailed tasks of operating governmental services. The people, through their attitudes toward government and its methods of operation, determine the type of service they receive from government.

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Chapter VII Raising and Spending Public Money

Local governments in the Metropolitan Los Angeles area spend a total of approximately $775,000,000 each year. Taken together, they may be classified as big business in terms of the amount of money they handle. Unlike most business organizations, however, governments function purely to render service, not to gain profits. Today people are asking for, and receiving, more and more services from government. A description of the methods used in financing these operations is an essential part of any study of government.

Taxes and the way in which the taxpayers' money is spent rank high among the topics of conversation whenever people talk about government. If it is proposed that government provide a new service, or expand an existing one, the question inevitably arises: how much will it cost? No matter how a government raises its money--by levying taxes, imposing fees, borrowing money, or selling its services--every citizen must share in paying the costs of the public agencies which work for him.

A portrayal of government budgets, showing relative sizes of budget documents. The figures indicate the total amount requested by each government for operations during the succeeding fiscal period. B. S. Goldberg, Jr.

There is a direct relationship between the quantity and quality of governmental services on the one hand and the financial resources of the community, state, or nation on the other. Unless it is badly misgoverned, the well-to-do community receives more and better governmental services than the poor one. If its income is steady and its credit is good, a city government can contribute a great deal to the comforts of urban living.

The total income which any government can expect to obtain may be measured by the cash income of its inhabitants. In Los Angeles County, cash income rose between 1940 and 1947 from 2.3 to 7.0 billions of dollars. In the State during the same period of time, there was a slightly higher rate of increase from 5.5 to 16.0 billions. Like personal income, the revenues and expenditures of government have increased during this same period.

Many governmental services benefit the taxpayer directly, as for example, the construction and maintenance of streets, health and recreation programs, and fire and police protection. Others, such as welfare and relief programs, schools, and public hospitals, may be valuable to him only indirectly or in time of need. Even if a taxpayer has no children of his own to be educated, and no need

Chapter VIII Public Works and Utilities

The comforts and conveniences of living in an urban area, insofar as they result from the activities of government, come largely under the headings of public works and public utilities. There is no hard and fast definition of either term, and no precise list of functions which can be said to fall into either of the two catagories. The best that can be said is that the term "public works" generally is understood to include these activities: the design, construction, and repair of streets, highways, freeways, and bridges; the cleaning and lighting of streets; the operation of sewer systems and sewage disposal plants; the collection and disposal of garbage and rubbish; the operation of flood control, drainage,and irrigation systems; the construction and maintenance of public buildings; general engineering; and such related duties as surveying and map-making essential to the operation of these facilities.

The term "public utilities," on the other hand, usually refers to such services as the supply of water for household, industrial, and irrigation uses; of electricity for power and light; of gas for heating; and of telephone and telegraph facilities. It includes the operation of public transportation systems; the administration of harbors and airports; and the operation of pipe lines.

Both terms are used to describe activities which are vitally important to urban dwellers. Each, however, has several distinguishing characteristics. Public works functions generally are carried out directly by a unit of government. For example, streets and sewers are city-owned, and city employees are responsible for keeping them in good repair. We do not have privately-owned and operated streets and sewers. These functions are paid for by money obtained from taxes. A principal exception to this characteristic is the charge imposed by some cities for waste and refuse collection.

Public utility enterprises are essential services administered either by governments or by private enterprise. Except for water supply and harbor facilities, most utilities in this county are privately-owned and operated. We do not often find competition between either public and private, or two private enterprises in the furnishing of such services as gas, water, and electricity. Duplication of water mains and power lines is considered

Hoover Dam and power plants where power is generated for transmission to the Los Angeles metroprolitan area. Los Angeles Department of Water and Power.

CHAPTER IX Protection of Persons and Property

The California Constitution provides in Article I, Section 1, that "all men . . . have certain inalienable rights, among which are those of enjoying and defending life and liberty; acquiring, possessing and protecting property . . ." This guarantee would be quite meaningless unless the people of California, through their governments at the State and local levels, had undertaken to enforce it by establishing agencies which protect life and property. Such agencies are those which provide police, fire fighting, and other protective services.

Traditionally, the protection of life and property by the police has been achieved by enforcement of laws against criminal acts. The State of California, by virtue of its police power, has authority to pass laws forbidding acts which would injure the health, safety, morals, and general welfare of its people. The rights and duties of every person who lives within its borders are defined, so that people are compelled to do certain things and to refrain from doing other things. The State also is responsible for maintaining peace and order, because riots and mass disorder may result in bloodshed and destruction of homes, stores, and

Protection of school children at crossings by an officer of the Los Angeles Police Department. Los Angeles Police Department.

factories. The counties and cities share with the State government the authority to regulate conduct and the responsibility for keeping the peace.

The job of policing, that is, of preserving peace and enforcing State, county, and city legislation which regulates individual conduct, is carried out principally by the local governments -the cities and counties. It is one of the oldest functions performed by local governments, for cities provided police protection to their citizens long before they furnished water systems or sewers. The State government has kept for itself certain specialized policing tasks, as for instance that of the California Highway Patrol in enforcing traffic laws on State highways.

Policing is only one phase of the task of enforcing law and maintaining order. It is equally important, after a man has been arrested, that he be prosecuted efficiently and that his guilt or innocence be determined by competent courts and juries. Prosecution and trial, as carried out by prosecuting attorneys and the courts, will be described in the next chapter. Policing duties are divided among a large number of agencies, each with a designated geographical area within which it operates, or a particular law or group of laws to enforce.

A city police department enforces all State

Chapter X Legal Officers and the Courts: Administration of Justice

The police, the sheriff, and other law enforcement officers have been given the duty of apprehending those whom they suspect of violating the law. They also must gather proof to support their charges. They can arrest a person, accuse him of having committed a crime, and point to the evidence which causes them to believe he is guilty. It is at this point in the procedure of law enforcement that responsibility shifts from the police to the prosecutor. It is the prosecutor who decides whether the accused is to be brought into court to answer to a formal complaint or released without further action. This decision, in most cases, is reached on the basis of evidence produced by the police, plus any information the prosecutor may obtain through an inquiry of his own. It is in court that the suspect admits his guilt or attempts to prove his innocence. If he admits guilt, or is found guilty by a judge or jury, the court imposes punishment.

The procedure which must be followed from the time of arrest to the imposition of sentence is governed by a set of rules. Among these are some of our most valued guarantees of the rights of the individual. The California Constitution provides that the accused is entitled to his day in court, that is, that he cannot be imprisoned indefinitely without a public hearing before a judge. He is entitled to a speedy and public trial and to a trial by

Los Angeles County Hall of Justice. B. S. Goldberg, Jr.

jury if he wishes it. He has the right to be represented by a lawyer and to have witnesses testify on his behalf.

The police are required to be prompt in bringing an arrested person before a judge. The charges against the accused must be put down in writing, and he must be informed of their nature. These rules governing procedure in criminal cases are thought of as safeguards against arbitrary action by law enforcement officers. The rules are not always observed, and injustices sometimes result. Some individuals are not aware of their legal rights. Others do not, or cannot, insist upon their observance. The administration of justice in criminal cases has been one of the most criticized as well as one of the most complex phases of American government.

In speaking of the administration of justice, we are concerned with the courts and the officers whose work is associated with the courts. Among these officers are the district attorney, city attorneys and prosecutors, the public defender, and the public administrator. We will observe the task of the grand jury, a body which is appointed by and reports to the courts. The important work of the coroner as an ally of the district attorney also deserves attention.

In considering the courts, it is important to

Chapter XI Health and Sanitation

Health is of vital concern to every individual and to his community. However, the protection and improvement of public health is not an individual matter. Effective control of communicable diseases and preventable illnesses must be exercised throughout the community. Control measures have been set up by federal, State, and local laws. Governmental agencies exist on all three of the above levels to enforce these laws. Thus, the health of a community depends upon the effectiveness of these agencies in their work of control and prevention.

PUBLIC HEALTH

The agency most directly concerned with the protection of health is the public health department of a city or county. Here rests the major responsibility for enforcing health laws and administering prevention and control measures. Local governments carry on all aspects of public health work except medical care.

The federal and State governments, however, have certain specialized functions to perform. The United States Public Health Service is responsible for quarantining foreign ships entering Los Angeles and Long Beach Harbors; caring for sick and disabled seamen; obtaining vital statistics in regard to communicable or contagious diseases; and carrying out certain other direct or advisory functions. Each county health officer is an officer of this federal department, without pay and by special appointment, for the purpose of cooperating in the enforcement of certain federal regulations.

The State Department of Public Health functions in local areas mainly in an advisory capacity. However, this department performs certain acts of inspection, enforcement, and sanitation engineering in every area of the State. Also, each city and county health officer must report all vital statistics in regard to communicable diseases to the State.

Some financial aid comes to local units from State and federal agencies for certain purposes. For example, such aid is being received by several local health departments for improvement of facilities for tuberculosis and venereal disease control, maternal and child health care, and other related fields.

The County Health Department

In Los Angeles County the largest local health agency is the County Health Department. As early as 1910 the county provided for a full-time health

Chapter XII Education and Recreation

PUBLIC EDUCATION Californians have made sure that public education within their State is under democratic control. They have realized its supreme importance as an instrument for occupational training, cultural development, and preparation for citizenship in our democracy. Therefore, they have provided in their constitution that education is to be a State concern and that it is to operate under State law and supervision. To assure upholding of these principles, and to maintain a uniform program of education, Californians also have established a State Board of Education and a State Superintendent of Public Instruction to develop and direct their public school program.Since public education functions primarily at local levels, the counties act as agents of the State in supervising administration of public education. In each county there is a superintendent of schools; in Los Angeles County he is appointed by the Board of Supervisors. Each county also has a board of education, composed of the superintendent and four other members appointed by the board of supervisors. The superintendent's office has general jurisdiction over legal and business matters. He enforces regulations for examination of teachers and, in many cases, the educational programs of public schools. His office also acts in an advisory and service capacity to the schools.The county board of education has certain specific functions, such as certifying prospective teachers. It shares responsibility with the superintendent for insuring observance of State educational laws and policies. Some of the primary laws which our public schools must follow are these:

1.	every child must be admitted to school without cost;
2.	classes shall be maintained over a prescribed annual term;
3.	every person between the ages of eight and eighteen must attend school;
4.	certain requisite subjects shall be taught;
5.	students shall be given free textbooks, and State-approved texts shall be used in elementary schools;
6.	buildings must meet minimum State standards;
7.	teachers must meet certain State standards and must be paid at least $2,400 yearly, with job-assurance after a probationary period.

Chapter XIII Social Services

MEDICAL SERVICES--Every county is required by State law to aid and relieve all indigent persons within its boundaries who are incapacitated by age, disease, or accident. State law also authorizes the county boards of supervisors to levy taxes to provide for the care and maintenance of these persons. Administrative responsibility for care of the medically indigent in Los Angeles County is vested in the Superintendent of Charities as head of the County Department of Charities. This official is appointed by the Board of Supervisors, subject to civil service provisions. The department provides actual services through its bureau of institutions.

For a person to be eligible to receive indigent medical aid, he first of all must meet certain residence requirements. Indigency is a secondary consideration. The State law has been interpreted in a common-sense manner so that public aid is available not only to persons with no financial resources whatsoever, but also to persons with small resources, insufficient to afford them the type of care they need. No one is eligible who can obtain adequate care in a private institution by normal means. In other words, a person is not eligible if he can obtain aid, either through his own resources or through those of his relatives, who become legally responsible for aiding him if he is classified as "indigent." State legislation and county ordinances outline certain other qualifications which a person must meet in order to be eligible for public medical aid.

Eligibility of each person applying to the bureau of institutions for medical care is investigated by the bureau of medical social service of the County Department of Charities. If a person is found to be eligible, he may be placed in a county institution or may receive outside medical care at county expense. Outside medical care is available to those who need treatment but do not require hospitalization.

If a person who has received free medical aid is found to be, or becomes, able to pay all or part of the cost of his treatment, he must do so. The bureau of resources and collections of the Department of Charities determines who must reimburse the county for those services and collects the amounts reimbursable. If negotiations by this bureau fail to recover the funds, the matter may be referred for legal action to compel payment.

Medical care is provided through county facilities, usually those of the County General Hospital, to several types of cases not necessarily

Los Angeles County Hospital. Spence Air Photos.

Chapter XIV The Government of a Metropolitan Region

The Problem

We have seen that no unit of government stands alone. In a metropolitan area, the dependence of each government upon others in the performance of its activities is growing rapidly. Overlapping functions are at their worst in a metropolitan community. Populations of cities and unincorporated areas always want more things done for them by their governments than they are willing or able to finance. Competition between cities, "living up to the Joneses," in recreational, health, utility, and other services has nearly bankrupted many communities. Cities attempt to meet problems without studying all the technical conditions involved or the expense of beginning and maintaining certain services.

There are great changes taking place in our concepts of social living. Our political thinking is being altered by the flow of population across state and local government boundaries, from rural to urban, from congested centers to the suburbs. This movement does not take place evenly and smoothly; it proceeds in jumps and jerks as social and economic conditions dictate. Most of this movement is based on the means of transportation available to the individual and his desire to improve the living conditions of his family.

This change has great implications for local government. It necessitates the trend toward unifying responsibility for supplying those services needed uniformly throughout the area, as in the case of health protection. There is no agreement on which services should be furnished exclusively by a central government in cooperation with local units, and which are more effectively operated by the local areas, without assistance or guidance of any sort from the central administrative unit. With certain functions, however, the aims to be achieved and the methods used have been recognized as being identical throughout the area. This is true of flood control and prevention of air pollution, since the dangers of floods and smog must be combatted uniformly throughout the county. However, many other operations also have common objectives and procedures, among them health, police, fire, transportation, education, libraries, recreation, water supply, sanitation, taxation, accounting, recording, and licensing.

Experience with certain functions of area-wide concern shows that most small governments are not properly equipped to perform all the necessary services. Neither are they able to raise sufficient

The Coast Highway, one of the major approaches to the Los Angeles metropolitan area, with the City of Santa Monica in the background. Automobile Club of Southern California.