1. Discuss the issues that surrounded the rise of the Papacy. There were 9 factors that led to the rise of the Papacy. The first 5 were as follows: (1) Constantine was very much involved in the union of church and state. As stated earlier, his influence was more from the state/political side of the equation. (2) Some very able men served as bishops of Rome. (3) Geography was a factor because the church of Rome often settled disputes for the eastern metropolitan churches. (4) The capital was moved from Rome to Constantinople, which got Constantine out of the way for the bishop of Rome. And (5), doctrinal controversies contributed to the rise of the Papacy. Of these controveries, Arianism was the most important, and the issue revolved around whether or not Jesus was full deity.

2. Discuss the key personalities of the modalism and subordinationism debate. Modalists believed that God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit were three different modes of the same being. In the Old Testament, there was God. Then, God became Jesus, and after death, Jesus became the Holy Spirit. Arius (256-336AD) was a student of Lucien in Antioch, and he was very eloquent. He became a senior presbyter at a church in Alexandria, he was at the Bakalis church, and he was very influencial. He accused Alexander (313-328AD), an elderly bishop in Alexandria, of being a modalist. Alexander had used modalism as a way to defend the full deity of Christ, but Arius accused him of heresy. Alexander called a synod in 321AD and had Arius condemned. So, Arius went to Caesarea where he found support from Eusebius (263-339). Constantine was very upset by the division in the church, so Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, tried to be mediator between Arius and Alexander. Eusebius was looking for a state solution, however, rather than a theological solution. He wanted to make everyone happy no matter how great the compromise. Athanasius (298-373) was only a deacon in Alexandria, and he might have been looking for a way to move up. So, he supported Alexander, and this led to the Council of Nicaea.

3. Discuss the development of the debate at the Council of Nicaea. The Council of Nicaea lasted from 5/20/325 until 7/25/325AD. The church had 318 bishops at that point. Sylvester, bishop of Rome, was sick and could not attend. This was significant because he would later be the outside bishop who would agree with the decision of the council. Athanasius prevailed with those who attended.

In presenting his position, Arius used the Greek word "heteroousios" which meant that the essence of Jesus was different than the essence of God. By saying that they were of different essence, he was trying to refute modalism. Before being done, though, he started to admit that Jesus was finite and subordinate to God. Athanasius used the Greek word "homoousios" which meant that they were of the same essence, but different persons and co-eternal. Eusebius, looking for the right compromise between the two, used the Greek word "homoiousios" which meant similar substances. He added that Jesus was a created being but maybe created before Genesis 1:1. Arius was willing to accept Eusebius' input, but Athanasius would not. Consequently, the whole world was divided by the dipthong of the letter "i".

4. Discuss the results of the Arian controversy. The Creed of Nicaea agreed with Athanasius, and the followers of Arius were upset. Arius and the other bishops who would not sign the decree were exiled. Later, Arius was brought back, and Athanasius was exiled. But no matter what Constantine tried, nothing worked. He wanted to rebuild Rome, but he was not able. Constantine and Eusebius were more interested in preserving the unity of the empire than in finding the correct theology. Eusebius, being a bishop, was too close to Constantine and the state for his own good.

The Creed of Nicaea was based on Athanasius' view. It expressed the full deity of Christ, eternal, and distinct from the Father. The Nicene Creed was based on the above creed, the rules of faith (Apostle's Creed), and some of the later stuff that came along. This creed was approved at the Council of Chalcedon in 451AD. It said that "Jesus Christ is true God of true God, begotten not made, and of one essence with the Father." Eusebius and Constantine approved this creed, but the eastern churches did not. The final result was the Cappadocian Fathers, and they came up with the term "hypostatic union" to describe the relationship between Jesus and the Father.

				Tom of Bethany

Back To TLEE's Home Page

Index to Selected Essays And Book Reviews

Lesson 17 - Doctrinal Controversies (Nestorian)

Send email to: tlee6040@aol.com