I. Study Notes For The Final Exam (short essay)
Loevinger combined psychoanalysis and Kohlberg's moral development and determined that ego plays a part in personality development. She believed that the individual's ego develops by trying to make something out of experiences, by trying to achieve self-understanding, and by integrating this understanding with behavior. She identified seven stages of development: (1) presocial - infants depend on caregiver for identity, (2) impulsive - children who have achieved separate identity, (3) self-protective - egos are ruled by self-interest, (4) conformist - ego judges itself by external things, like possessions, status, reputation, and appearance, (5) conscientious - they judge own traits, achievements, and ideals, (6) autonomous - they can tolerate paradoxical relationships, and (7) integrated - they can respect and reconcile conflicting demands.
Havighurst, in 1953, saw adulthood as a series of periods in which one must accomplish certain developmental tasks in order to feel like their life has meaning. For young adults, the tasks are starting a family and establishing a career. Other tasks are selecting a mate, learning to live with that mate, rearing children, managing a home, getting started with an occupation, taking on civic responsibility, and finding a congenial social group. In middle age, the tasks are to achieve adult civic and social responsibility, to establish and maintain an adequate standard of living, to help teenage children become responsible, fulfilled adults, to develop some suitable leisure-time activities, to relate to one's spouse as a person, to accept and adjust to the physiological changes of middle age, and to adjust to aging parents. Later maturity tasks are adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health, adjusting to retirement and reduced income, adjusting to the death of a spouse, establishing an afiliation with one's age group, meeting social and civic obligations, and establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements.
These tasks do not apply to all people. There are more exceptions than ever before. Now, middle age tasks may involve finding a new mate after a divorce, settling into a single lifestyle, facing early retirement, raising younger children, or beginning a new occupation.
Piaget established two stages for moral development - moral realism stage and moral relativism stage. The first is when the child sees moral rules as absolute and unchangeable. In later years, the rules are less rigid and more relative. Kohlberg developed his concept from these two stages. He asked questions about a man who stole a drug from a greedy druggist to save his wife's life. In doing so, he identified six stages of moral development, which are broken into three level groupings. Level 1 is preconventional and is based on (1) avoiding punishment and (2) gaining rewards. Level 2 is conventional and is based on social conformity. People want to avoid disapproval, also to avoid censure by legitimate authorities. Level 3 is postconventional and is based on moral principles. People choose to abide by the laws of society and by universal ethical principles.
A learning disability pertains to the extreme difficulty in learning school subjects such as reading, writing, or math, despite normal intelligence and absence of sensory or motor defects. These children usually require special attention in the classroom. Eighty percent are boys. The first main group involves children with dyslexia (difficulty in learning to read) and dysgrapha (difficulty with writing). Also, those with dyscalculia (difficulty with math) are in this first group. The second group has attention-deficit disorder, or the inability to remain focused on anything long enough to learn it. Many of those in this second group are hyperactive. Together, this is ADHD (attention-deficit, hyperactivity disorder). Children with learning disabiities usually fall behind the others. Then, they are frequently excluded from social activities, too. They can become shy and withdrawn, or boastful, or even impulsive and angry. They almost always have low self-esteem.
Dyslexia is related to reading difficulties which occur because the child has a tendancy to reverse letters and also to confuse "b" and "d." Dyslexia is somewhat normal for early readers, but most people grow out of it. The dyslexic does not. This problem can lead to a delay in learning to speak, or their speech may be at a lower level than their peers. They also tend to have difficulty in naming colors and objects. They are often slow with memory retrieval. They can have difficulty hearing both syllables of a two-syllable word or knowing that a word like "sat" begins with an "s" and ends with a "t." Heredity plays a key role in this disorder. For some reason, dyslexia seems to run in families with left-handedness, though the two do not appear to have any connection. Treatment usually involves special tutoring and trying to build the child's confidence. Often, those with dyslexia rise above their condition and become successful.
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) is the inability to keep one's attention focused on something long enough to learn it. Some of the possible causes of Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) are malnutrition, lead poisoning, organic brain damage, heredity, intrauterine abnormalities, prenatal exposure to drugs like crack cocaine, and lack of oxygen during fetal development or childbirth. ADHD also seems to be genetically linked. The drug, Ritalin, which is a stimulant in the amphetamine family, is often used for hyperactivity. Where the drug seems to have been successful, psychologists say that all stimulation was coming in at the same level, and the ADD person could not distinguish between them. Administering this drug must be done with great care. Another form of treatment is educational management, which tries to restructure the child's environment by simplifying it, reducing distractions, making expectations more explicit, and by reducing confusion. The specific educational plan can vary based on the therapist or educator. ADD can cause poor performance in school and low self-worth and competence.
There are two specific types of aging theories - stochastic and programmed. The stochastic theories say that the body ages as a result of random assaults from both the internal and external environment. These are the often called wear and tear theories of aging and compare aging to a machine which eventually wears out. One theory says that aging cells cannot dispose of lipofusein (waste, fatty substance), so the body is overcome. Another theory says that, in the normal use of oxygen, small, highly charged, unpaired electrons (free radicals) are left over which might interrupt normal cell functioning. Another theory says that older persons cannot replace damaged or dead cells as quickly and efficiently. This theory would suggest that aging results from a decline in the self-repair capacity. The immune system also breaks down and becomes less effective. Stochastic theories do not explain why exercise is beneficial, and they also do not explain why these slowdowns and breakdowns happen. Programmed theories of aging say that the programmed actions of specific genes will determine a person's life span. It is believed that about 200 genes determine the average life span of a human being. The limit of a person's life might be determined by the number of times that a cell will divide itself. No theory alone adequately explains aging.
In 1969, Elisabeth Kubler-Ross presented five stages which the dying person might go through. The word "might" must be used because her analysis concluded that not everyone goes through every stage. Also, even though she presented a logical order for the stages, not everyone goes through them in that order. These five stages are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. When a person is first confronted with the realization of their certain, near death, they first will probably enter into the state of denial. They will not want to believe that this thing is really happening to them. Following denial, the person will probably experience the stage of anger because this thing is really happening to them. They will have a sense of having to leave things in their life undone and also of leaving family members and others who are close to them. The third stage is bargaining, and in this stage, the person facing death might begin to desperately look for ways to buy more time. If this fails, or when it fails, the patient is likely to enter the depression stage, sensing that all hope is lost. Finally, once the depression can begin to lift, the person about to die can probably enter the acceptance stage and patiently wait for their end.
Cognitive theory views human beings as rational, active, alert, and competent beings rather than just mechanistic. Humans receive information, but they also process it. Therefore, cognitive theory, being mainly concerned with intellectual development, examines how people process information that is, in part, genetically preprogrammed and based on maturity. Jean Piaget is a major figure in cognitive theory. He based much of his beliefs on the brain and how it grows, changes, and adapts to the world. He was concerned with the structure of thought and the way in which the mind processes information. This is called structuralism.
Piaget coined some significant terms which are related to processing information. Conservation meant that a child could rationalize that a glass of water poured into a differently shaped container still contained the same amount of water. Assimilation meant interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures. Accommodation meant to change existing mental structures based on new experiences. Adaptation is a combination of assimilation and accommodation. A person's way to process information changes with growth and knowledge. He defined the basic unit of study as a scheme.
Piaget developed four stages for mental growth. Sensorimotor, from birth to approximately two years, is when the child knows the world only by looking, grasping, mouthing, and other actions. Preoperational, two to seven years, is when children form concepts and have symbols for communication. Concrete operational, seven to eleven or twelve, is manifested by logical thought, being able to classify according to several dimensions, and being able to understand mathematical concepts, provided that they can apply these operations to concrete objects or events. Children achieve conservation at this stage. Formal operational, twelve and beyond, is when the individual can explore logical solutions to both concrete and abstract concepts. They can think systematically.
Information-processing theory rejects the idea of different stages of development. They are concerned with perception, attention, and memory and how these processes function. This theory compares the human mind to the computer in the way that it receives, analyzes, and stores information. Vygotsky concluded that we make sense of our world only by learning the shared meanings of others around us. The zone of proximal development is the difference between the child's actual level of performance alone and when guided by adults or more experienced peers.
Behaviorism is the result of early twentieth century American psychologists to create a science of human behavior. The basis of behaviorism is that it is a study of human behavior. Ivan Pavlov was involved in classical conditioning and John Watson was interested in learning. One of the foundational principles of these theories is that humans are born with a clean slate. They do not have any innate ideas, therefore their environment plays a large role in how they will behave. Instead of saying that people are good or bad, behaviorists say that people respond to what they are given. This is a deterministic approach in that the values, attitudes, and emotional responses of a person are said to be determined by either the present or past environment. Because of this, behaviorists tend to think that people should not be blamed or given credit for what they have done.
Classical conditioning is a type of behavior theory. A neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus to achieve a particular response. Pavlov observed that dogs salivated when meat was placed in their mouth. He began to strike a tuning fork at feeding time, and soon, the dogs had been conditioned to salivate at that sound.
Operant conditioning is another behavioral theory, and with this one, the specific response cannot be elicited automatically. Behavior is more voluntary and is usually determined by the consequences of the behavior. The law of effect says that the consequences of a behavior will determine the probability that the behavior will be repeated. For this reason, operant conditioning involves reinforcing the voluntary response.
Avoidant conditioning is a form of operant conditioning where the reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus. Shaping means that behaviors which are close to the desired behavior are reinforced. This will encourage the person to move even closer to the desired bahavior. Behavior modification is accomplished by combining all of the conditioning procedures, reinforcing, reward, and shaping, to change behavior.
In conclusion, behavioral theories possess the following key aspects: (a) they stress that development follows the laws of learning and is determined largely by environment, (b) classical conditioning refers to involuntary responses elicited by naturally occurring stimulus, which is then paired with another unrelated stimulus, (c) classical conditioning is probably involved in the learning of fears, emotional responses, and other similar behaviors, (d) B. F. Skinner said that behavior is a function of consequences, (e) reinforcers increase the probability that a particular response will be repeated, and (f) operant conditioning has been useful in child-rearing, educational, and clinical practice settings.
II. Additional Questions
Communication patterns are open, clear, reciprocal, and well received in a healthy family versus confused, evasive, vague, and non-reciprocal in a dysfunctional family. Relationships are positive, trusting, mutual, shared, warm and caring in a healthy family, but they are not in a dysfunctional family. In a healthy family, power is shared by parents, there is flexibility in decision making, and input is allowed from all family members. These traits do not exist in a dysfunctional family. Role differentiation is well defined in a healthy family, and members have a sense of self-worth. In a healthy family, members can work through stressful situations, and there is a loving, supportive environment.
Teenagers can find their identity in five different areas - academic, spiritual, social, emotional, and physical.
Freud's stages are oral (sensual pleasure through the mouth), anal (sensual pleasure through issues of control), phallic (sensual pleasures in genitals), latency (a temporary dormancy in the interest in sexual gratification), and genital (normal adult sexual behavior).
Erikson's stages are: (1) oral-sensory (trust versus mistrust - can I trust the world?), (2) muscular-anal (autonomy versus shame and doubt - can I control my own behavior?), (3) locomotor-genital (initiative versus guilt about abilities - can I become independent of my parents and explore my limits?), (4) latency (industry versus inferiority - can I master the skills necessary to survive?), (5) puberty and adolescence (identity versus role confusion - who am I?), (6) young adulthood (intimacy versus isolated - can I give fully of myself to another?), (7) adulthood (generative derivation - what can I offer to succeeding generations?), and (8) maturity (ego integrity versus despair - have I found contentment and satisfaction through my life and play?). At each stage of life, the individual tends toward one of the above extremes.
Maslow's hierarchy of needs are physiological, safety or security, belonging, self-esteem, and self-actualization. We are motivated to satisfy our needs, beginning with the physiological. When one need in his chart is met, then we move to the next.
Mothers should be verbally and emotionally responsive. Physical environment should be safe and organized. Child should have appropriate toys. Mother should be involved with child. Child needs daily stimulation.
Some of the factors are nutrition, family size, good health, socioeconomic status, early stimulation and play, and language at home. Words represent ammunition for thought.
Good facilities have adequate financial resources to do the job right, have licensed teachers, and structured playground activities.
Speech defects can be articulation errors, voice and sound disorders, and stuttering. Articulation errors usually improve if the child's hearing is all right. Stuttering also usually clears up, but if not by Junior High, then the person will probably stutter for life.
The young child should achieve appropriate need for people, develop appropriate giving/receiving patterns of affection, able to relate to changing social groups, develop sense of right and wrong, learn sexual affiliations, relate oneself to universe, use language, develop conceptual skills, learn more physical skills, and learn about physical environment.
There are four types of abuse - physical, neglect, emotional maltreatment, and sexual. Physical abuse pertains to non-accidental injury by the caregiver. This usually occurs in children under three years of age. Emotional maltreatment is usually psychological or mental abuse, such as constantly belittling, blaming, and treating siblings unequally. Sexual abuse is when the child is used to give sexual stimulation to another person.
The number one problem is for late maturing boys. Next is early maturing girls. Late maturing girls tend to have a more favorable self-concept. Early maturing boys experience very few disadvantages.
Teens have a need to feel accepted. They have a sense of loneliness which can be met by friends. They feel like everyone is looking at them. They need good friends in order to have a good self-image. They need experience at dating.
Teenagers tend to be more daring. Boys build their reputation by their daring. Getting into trouble can also be entertaining and done for prestige. Toughness is a sign of masculinity, and street smartness shows an ability to outsmart others. Getting into trouble fights off boredom.
Maturity is demonstrated when we accept and use our body more effectively, develop both sex relationships, achieve appropriate sex roles, become emotionally dependent from parents, become economically independent, get ready for and accomplish marriage, demonstrate socially acceptable behaviors, and have a set of ethics for adult behavior.
People date to learn about the opposite sex, how to deal with them, to improve communication and social skills, learn about sexual decisions, engage in sexual exploration, and determine compatability with different partners.
A batterer often has poor impulse controls, an explosive temper, limited tolerance, secretly vulnerable to depression, very "now" oriented, demanding in sexual relationships, may be prone to spying on spouse, believes that violence is good for the family, has a family history of violence, believes that violence is good for the family, has strong ego needs, fears spousal cheating, and has a very low self-esteem.
A battered wife is usually long-suffering, economically and emotionally dependent, unlimited patience for a magic solution, cannot judge risks well over time, poor self-image which can lead to overweight, may contemplate suicide, allows containment and restriction by spouse, believes that his restriction shows caring, believes that violence may solve the problem, accepts husband's guilt, and history of family violence.
Some of the areas are material well-being and financial security, having health and personal safety, good marriage, good, grown children, good relationships with siblings, good relationships with friends, involved in helping others, active in government, has still more to learn, being creative, and has recreational opportunities. Accepting one's life in later years can be achieved if child-rearing went well, satisfaction with work and other personal achievements.
Tom of Spotswood"He that hath the Son hath life; and he that hath not the Son of God hath not life." (I John 5:12)
"And ye shall seek me, and find me, when ye shall search for me with all your heart." (Jeremiah 29:13)
Index to Selected Essays And Book Reviews
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