What in the United States from "A History of the Nineteenth Century Year by Year" by Edwin Emerson, Jr., edited by C.A. Venturi

Edwin M. Stanton hod become Secretary of War, At the same time, General Burnside, with the fleet under Goldsborough, captured Roanoke Island, New Berne and Port Macon, on the North Carolina coast. The only harbor left to the Confederacy on this coast was that of Wilmington.

General Curtis, under Halleck, defeated the Confederates on January 6 and 7 at Pea Ridge, Arkansas. Buell, who succeeded Sherman in Kentucky, was to push forward and retain East Tennessee, but he felt it impracticable with the force at his command. A. S. Johnston had massed at Bowling Green to hold Kentucky and Tennessee. In order to divide Johnston's forces, Halleck ordered Grant to make a reconnaissance with gunboats. Fort Henry might be taken, Columbus turned, and Bowling Green abandoned. Thomas advanced against Zollicoffer and dislodged him from Cumberland Gap. On Pebruary 2, Grant started up the Tennessee on transports, Commodore Foote following with 7 light-draft gunboats. Port Henry guarded the Tennessee, and Fort Donelson the Cumberland, at a short distance overland from each other. The capture of the first proved easy. "Fort Henry is ours; I shall take and destroy Fort Donelson on the 8th and return", was Grant's dispatch. The navigation of the Tennessee passed into Union control Resolved to fight at Donelson, Johnston divided his slender force and hastened to Nashville. only raw recruits and one drilled brigade went to Grant's assistance. Grant reached Donelson with Foote arriving in the evening to begin the assault on the 14th but drew off damaged. Grant repelled a desperate sortie and stormed the entrenchments in his front. On Sunday the 16th the fort was taken with its whole force. The Generals, Floyd and Pillow, however, had escaped during the previous night, as did N.B. Forrest. General Buckner surrendered. Grant sprang at once into national distinction.

All the warships of the United States, with the exception of a few vessels scuttled at Norfolk, remained in their hands. In all, they numbered 76 ships but they were all built of wood, and no less than 32 relied upon sails alone for motive power. With a strong squadron of steam ironclads, like those that were used in the Crimea before Kinburn, the strong seaports of Charleston, Wilmington and Mobile might have been reduced from the start.

The South's only chance lay in strengthening the shore defenses, as was done, and in designing vessels of extreme power and great protection. Among the enemy's ships scuttled at Norfolk was the "Merrimac." She was raised and renamed the "Virginia," but the old name still clung to her. Over her uninjured hull new upper works were constructed, protected by rough iron armor designed for her by Commander Brooke on the model of Stevens, old ironclads. With unarmored ends of considerable length, her freeboard was left very low fore and aft. She was stripped of masts and rigging, a daring departure from the accustomed designs of shipbuilders. Owing to the delay in obtaining suitable armor, she could not be got ready for sea until March, when she was manned with 300 soldiers, under Captain Buchanan and Lieutenant Jones, both seceders from the United States Navy.

In the meanwhile the Northern Secretary of the Navy had likewise come to realize the need of armor-plated ships. An advertisement was issued at Washington inviting designs for ironclads. Ericsson, the great Swedish inventor, at once came forward with a design for an invulnerable ship. So great was his faith in it that he agreed to build it entirely at his own risk, and to refund all money advanced on account should his ship prove unsuccessful. Ericsson furthermore undertook to complete his ship in the unprecedently short time of 100 days. Before the contract was even signed the keel plate for the vessel had been rolled.

The design of Ericsson's vessel, which was named by him the "Monitor," was a still more radical departure from accepted ship designs than the "Merrimac". The great innovation was a revolving gun turret. Already, it should be stated, the idea of a revolving naval turret had been independently evolved in Denmark and England, but to the United States belongs the credit of the first demonstration.

On the last day of January, the "Monitor" was launched, and turned over to the government in complete shape within 118 days from her commencement, a truly remarkable feat. Prom keel to turret the "Monitor" was the product of Ericsson's brain. She was crammed with all manner of inventions originated on the spur of the moment--no less than forty patentable contrivances. Admiral Porter was one of the few who recognized the immense value of the "Monitor." "This is the strongest fighting vessel in the world," he wrote, "and can whip anything afloat."

On Saturday morning, March 8, the "Merrimac" steamed out of Norfolk into Hampton Roads on her trial trip. Her officers and men had received communion, for they knew that they were going on a desperate errand. Both engines and steering gear were defective. Not one of her guns had ever been fired, and the crew were untrained landsmen. The small gunboat "Zouave" engaged the "Merrimac." The "Merrimac" took no notice," but steamed slowly past the United States ships "Cumberland" and "Congress," and the shore batteries. The Union officers were stricken with amazement as they saw their shots glance off the "Merrimac's" armored hull like so many pebbles. For fully an hour their fire was not returned. Then the "Merrimac" came up close. The first shot put one of the gun crews on the "Cumberland" out of action. At a range of 200 yards the "Merrimac" opened fire on the "Congress." "Our clean and handsome deck," reported one of the officers on the "Congress," "was in an instant changed into a slaughter pen, with locked legs and arms, and bleeding, blackened bodies scattered about by the shells, while brains actually dripped from the beams." Leaving the "Congress" on his starboard quarter, Captain Buchanan now headed for the "Cumberland," and used the ram for the first time in modern history. The ram itself broke off. As the "Merrimac" backed out, Buchanan called for the "Cumberland's" surrender. It was then that Lieutenant Morris answered: "Never. I'll sink alongside." With the red flag of "No surrender" flying at the fore, the "Cumberland" went down, her crew firing upon their impregnable adversary until the bitter end.

The "Congress," realizing her helplessness, made off for shoal water where she ran aground. The "Merrimac" followed her up within 150 yards, and, taking up an advantageous position raked her fore and aft for more than an hour. The doomed ship caught fire in several places. As the "Merrimac" drew near to board, the shore batteries redoubled their fire, wounding Buchanan and his officers. On this the "Merrimac" drew off, and resumed her fire on the burning "Congress." The remaining American ships--"Minnesota," "Roanoke" and "St. Lawrence"--were saved from sudden destruction only by anchoring in shoal water, where the "Merrimac" could not approach.

That very night, with dramatic promptness, the "Monitor" put into the Roads. She had taken the sea a few days before, commanded by Lieutenant Worden, and manned by a crew of volunteers, since she was regarded in the light of a forlorn hope. She was stationed near the helpless "Minnesota."

On the following morning the "Merrimac" came out again. There Lt. Jones beheld his new antagonist lying beside the "Minnesota,, like a "tin can on a shingle." The day was sunny and bright, and crowds of spectators thronged the shores. The "Monitor's cast-iron balls broke upon the armor of the "Merrimac," while the "Merrimac's" shells burst to no purpose over the "Monitor's" turret. After -exchanging fire for two hours, the "Merrimac's" gunners quit to save the ammunition. The "Monitor* had an immense advantage in her superior speed and maneuvering power, and in the greater radius afforded by the revolving turret. Lt. Worden, accordingly, resolved to ram. He missed the "Merrimac," both ships grazing. The "Merrimac" retaliated but Jones ran his stem right over the "Monitor's deck. Before his men could get over the side of the ship to board, the "Monitor" glided from under. It was fortunate that the "Merrimac" had lost her ram. Later the "Monitor" drifted into shoal water. Neither ship had been seriously injured. The "Monitor had been struck 22 times without appreciable injury. The "Merrimac," as a result of her 2 days, fighting, had 97 indentations in her armor. The demonstration of the superior merits of steam power and armor protection was striking.

A full month elapsed before the "Merrimac" came out once more with solid shot to engage the "Monitor." The Union ships hugged the shore and ignored the challenge.

The naval front changed from the James River to the Mississippi. The lower end, from Cairo to New Orleans, had fallen to the Confederates. "The Mississippi is the backbone of the rebellion," said Lincoln.

On February 3, Captain David G, Farragut, on the "Hartford," sailed from Hampton Roads to Ship Island, between New Orleans and Mobile. This was the rendezvous for a considerable Union fleet under command of David D. Porter, and here the expedition against New Orleans was prepared, Farragut took command. When Farragut, a Southerner, was urged by his kinsfolk to join the cause of secession, he pointed to the flag on his ship, saying: "I would see every many of you damned before I would raise my hand against that flag." Of his comrades in arms who seceded from the United States navy he said: "They will catch the devil before they get through with the business."

Farragut had 17 men-of-war, with 177 guns, and Porter a flotilla and steamships. In their rear was Butler with 6,000 men on transports. The utmost haste was needful, since the Confederates were constructing 4 ironclads, all of the "Merrimac" type and nearing completion. A peculiarly dangerous vessel on the Confederate side was the little ram "Manassas." She was a tugboat cut down to the water line, with upper works that resembled the shell of a turtle, protected by railroad iron of one inch thickness. Besides these were five gunboats and long fire ships filled with pine knots. A still more important Confederate defense was a boom across the Mississippi just below the forts. It consisted of cypress logs 451 in length, linked together with immense chains, and held in position by thirty 3,000-lb. anchors. When a freshet carried away some of the middle part, 8 dismantled schooners were anchored in the gap, fastened to one another and to the ends of the boom.

From the middle of April an incessant bombardment lasting 10 days was kept up against the Confederate forts from schooners anchored behind the shelter of trees and disguised by branches fastened to the rigging. The total effect of the 16,800 shells fired from these mortar boats was to disable 10 shore guns out of 126. On the night of April 20, supported by a fiercer bombardment, Farragut sent two gunboats upstream to make an opening in the boom. The "Pinola," running at full steam under heavy fire, rammed the boom, and opened a wide passage. Four days later, the morning of April 24, Farragut ordered the advance. The rattle of the cables gave the alarm to the Confederates. They launched fireboats against the advancing fleet. The "Cayuga" passed the boom before the Confederates opened fire, and came under the guns of the forts in time to receive the first shells. As ship after ship passed the boom, the little "Manassas" tried to ram them. Most of the ships of the first division escaped. The small Confederate tug "Mosher" came down the river pushing a blazing fire raft. The flames lighted up the waters, and made the tug an easy mark for the Union gunners. Still Lt. Sherman and his Confederate crew of six on the "Mosher" pushed right on, and drove their raft against the "Hartford," Farragut's flagship. All the men on the little "Mosher" paid for their heroism with their lives. The flames of the fire raft lighted the "Hartford's" side and ran up the rigging, In her efforts to avoid the fire raft, the "Hartford" ran aground under the guns of Fort St. Philip. A thrust from the "Manassas," instead of injuring the "Hartford," helped her to get off the shoals. The "Brooklyn" fared even worse. As she passed the boom her propeller was disabled. The forts covered her with their fire. The "Manassas" rammed her at full speed, but only crushed her timbers amidships into a coal bunker. Getting away she stood by the "Hartford" until she had got off the shoals. By this time the first and second division of Farragut's squadron had run the gantlet. Col. Higgins, the Confederate commander, exclaimed: "Better get to cover, boys; our cake is all dough." The old navy had won.

The third division, consisting of the minor ships fare the worst. Three ships became unmanageable and failed to pass the forts. The "Veruna" was followed in the dark by the Southern gunboat "Governor Moore," which, hoisting Federal lights came up close enough to ram. While backing out the gunboat was set on fire and disabled by the "Veruna's" shells. She drifted down stream. Next the "Stonewall Jackson" came out at early dawn, and twice rammed the "Veruna." The "Stonewall Jackson" was likewise set on fire and had to be abandoned, but the "Veruna" sunk. Her crew was rescued by other Federal ships. The last act of the great battle was a final attempt by the "Manassas" to ram the "Pinola." The Federal "Mississippi" cut in and tried to run the "Manassas" down. The little ram in her efforts to escape ran ashore and was burned.

That same morning the Confederate forces at Chalmette surrendered, Forts Jackson and St. Philip still held out, but, cut off from the Confederacy as they were, their fall was only a question of time.

On the morning of April 25, Farragut came around the bend at New Orleans and silenced the batteries, which were near the site of Jackson's battleground of 1815. The Confederate general, Lovell, evacuated the city with 3,000 men. As the fleet drew near, piles of cotton, coal and lumber were burning on the levee. Porter, with the aid of Butler, took possession of the two forts.

On May 16, Butler received from Farragut full military possession of the city. He organized a rigorous system, maintained order, kept the city clean and averted a pestilence. But by petty tyrannies he turned against his government the entire better class of the citizens. His worst offence was Order No. 15, "that when any female shall by word or gesture or movement insult or show contempt for any officer or soldier, she shall be held and regarded as a woman of the town plying her trade." Davis denounced him as an enemy of mankind. On December 15, he was relieved of his command.

In the West, Columbus was evacuated, and there ensued (April 1-7) the withdrawal from Island No. 10, at 4 point where the Mississippi makes two large bends among impassable swamps. Pope compelled its surrender to Foote. By the capture of Fort Donelson the way was open for a march into the very heart of the Mississippi region. A portion of Grant's army had occupied Nashville in the latter part of February. General Buell arrived at the same time. Johnston was to the southeast, while Beauregard was on the Mississippi. In March, Johnston and Beauregard united their armies near Corinth, Mississippi. Had one competent and active general commanded the Union forces, the Confederacy might have been rent in twain, and the war shortened fully a year. But a quarrel, which resulted in Grant being placed under arrest, rendered the Union force comparatively inefficient.

Commodore Davis took possession of Memphis after a fight of 20 minutes, and destroyed 7 out of 8 Confederate gunboats. On the first day of July, the gunboat flotilla united above Vicksburg with the Federal fleet from New Orleans. On resuming command, Grand found his columns divided between Savannah and Pittsburg Landing, which were 10 miles apart. Sherman, who had gone to the front, was in the advance. Sidney Johnston strengthened himself at Corinth, and was there joined by Beauregard. Buell was ordered to join Grant at once at Savannah, but the Confederates fell upon Grant before Buell arrived. On Sunday, July 6, Johnston's line of battle bore down on the Union camp. Near a log meeting-house called Shiloh, two miles south of Pittsburg Landing, the bloodiest battle of the war in the Mississippi Valley was fought-a battle which in desperation was surpassed by none. Sherman bore the brunt of the assault. Hearing the firing, Grant left for Pittsburg Landing by boat, arrived on the field, and gave such orders as the situation suggested. The Confederates pushed forward with wild energy and suffered an immense loss. The Union troops were forced back upon the river, a mile in the rear of their morning position. At this point General Johnston was killed. Beauregard, who was ill, took command, and the advance ceased. Buell's troops began to arrive when the first day's battle had ended, and Lew Wallace came up soon after. On Monday, the 7th, Grant and Buell, now in superior force, pushed forward on the left, recovered the lost ground, and drove the Confederates back to Corinth. Sherman's conduct during the battle made the beginning of his great reputation. Grant maintained an imperturbable silence when criticized about the first day's fight, and afterward declared that even on that day he at no time doubted the successful outcome of the engagement. He retained Lincoln's confidence. "I can't spare the man; he fights," was Lincoln's reply to a politician of prominence who urged that Grant should be removed.

McClellan began his second advance on Richmond in the beginning of April. Full 4 weeks passed before he took Yorktown from General Magruder. On May 5, the battle of Williamsburg was fought; but not until May 15 was Joe Johnston forced to abandon his lines near Williamsburg and to cross the Chickahominy. He then took up a position only 3 miles from Richmond.

But the situation was so altered by Jackson's campaign in the Shenandoah Valley that some of McClellan's best troops were recalled to defend the capital. Early in May, Jackson took the offensive, and on the 8th, the authorities at Richmond received the laconic despatch, "Providence blessed our arms with victory at McDowell yesterday." Brushing aside Milroy at McDowell, Jackson made ready to attack General Banks at Strasburg, and by swift movements surprised and defeated the Federals at Fort Royal. This was followed by a blow on Banks' flank near Newton. Banks passed on down the valley and crossed the Potomac, Jackson followed, and the authorities at Washington feared for the safety of the capital.

At the close of May, McClellan reported that he was quietly closing in on the enemy, preparatory to the last struggle. On the contrary, it was Johnston who took the offensive by attacking two corps of McClellan's army which lay on the south bank of the Chickahominy. This was the Battle of Seven Pines, fought on the last day of may and the first day of June. The losses were heavy on both sides and the result was indecisive. Johnston was wounded, and in consequence, after an interval during which General G. W. Smith commanded, Robert 9. Lee, took command of the Army of Northern Virginia. McClellan still delayed, and Lee and Jackson arranged between them one of the most remarkable pieces of strategy. By a series of wonderfully swift marches and battles Jackson slipped between the armies of Fremont and Shields, left the valley, and joined Lee, just in time to strike the Federal right in the first of the "Seven Days' Battles." Lee, knowing his man, exposed Richmond, but McClellan failed to take advantage of the opening. The first battle, Mechanicsville, on June 26, was indecisive, General Fitz-John Porter making a splendid resistance. At Gaines, Mill, the next day, Porter again bore the brunt of the fighting. The result of the two battles was McClellan's decision to transfer his base to the James. Oft the 29th, the battles of Savage's Station and White Oak Swamp, something in the nature of rearguard engagements, were fought. The fighting renewed on the next day. while McClellan's movement is by many regarded as a retreat rather than a change of base, his army Was not thrown into confusion. By the first of July he was strongly entrenched at Malvern Hill on the James, and repulsed with heavy losses Lee's several attempts to dislodge him. However, on the night following, McClellan retired to Harrison's Landing, and renewed his complaints against the authorities at Washington. The result of the campaign was distinctly encouraging to Richmond and discouraging to Washington.

In July, Lincoln called for 300,000 more volunteers. General John Pope, who had distinguished himself in the West, was put in command of the Army of Virginia, which was to advance across the Rappahannock somewhat on the line of McDowell's movement in 1861. Various portions of McClellan's command were withdrawn by water from the Peninsula, to reinforce Pope. The weakening of the Federal army at Harrison's Landing, and McClellan's inaction, enabled Lee to dispatch Jackson against Banks, who was operating in advance of Pope. Banks advanced to Cedar Mountain, where Jackson met him. In the battle which followed, the Confederates had the advantage and Banks withdrew. Lee soon followed Jackson, and in August he and Pope confronted each other on opposite sides of the Rappahannock. Lee, knowing that Pope's army was sure to grow stronger, sent Stonewall Jackson on a remarkable flank movement through Thoroughfare Gap to Pope's rear, where he seized Pope's communications. In this movement, as in many other important movements of the Army of Northern Virginia, the cavalry, under J.E.B. Stuart, played an important part. Pope fell back rapidly with a hope of destroying Jackson before Lee could come to the rescue. Jackson, however, withdrew to a strong position near the Junction. At sunset on August 28, Longstreet's advance had passed the Gap and was nearing Jackson's right. There was fighting there on the 29th, but Jackson held, and on the 30th Lee's whole army was in place. In the afternoon of the 30th, Lee threw his entire force against the Federals, and drove them out. Pope retreated across gull Run and prepared to resist another attack. The next day another action occurred at Chantilly on the Federal right. Pope attributed his want of success to the failure of his reinforcements from McClellan's army to march at the sound of the guns. General Fitz-John Porter was especially blamed. In September, McClellan was appointed to command the defenses of Washington, and Pope was relieved.

Encouraged, Lee resolved to advance further. On September 4, he crossed the Potomac, occupied Fredericksburg, Maryland, and issued a proclamation to the people of the State inviting them to join the Confederacy. Meanwhile he detached Jackson to capture Harper's Ferry, which was occupied by Miles. Jackson did so with great skill, and then hurried on to join Lee, who, after the battle of South Mountain, was confronted by McClellan at Antietam Creek. On September 17, McClellan attacked Lee. The battle was stubborn and bloody. Successive attacks of the Federals were repulsed, and Lee held his position, but on the night of the second day he withdrew across the Potomac. Both sides claimed a victory. McClellan made no immediate pursuit, but by November he had crossed the Potomac and camped on the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge.

Of even greater importance than this success was the famous Emancipation Proclamation which Lincoln issued on September 27, after the retreat of Lee's army. Sentiment had been steadily growing in favor of making the war for the Union a war against slavery also. Early in the war certain Union generals had taken the authority to emancipate slaves in the regions occupied by their armies. These acts Lincoln refused to ratify, but on March 3, 1862, he had signed the act forbidding the return of slaves escaping through the lines. During the summer, he had prepared his Proclamation and waited for a Union victory to make it public. From this time it was understood that if the Union arms prevailed slavery would be ended.

About the time of Lee's advance into Maryland, the Confederates in the West also took the offensive. General Braxton Bragg, now in command of their Western army, advanced as far as Frankfort in Kentucky. General Rosecrans, with the Federal forces, was operating in Mississippi and won an advantage at the battle of Corinth. On October 8, Bragg and Buell met at Perryville. Mainly through the stubborn resistance of General Sheridan the attack of Bragg was repulsed. During the night, Bragg withdrew, and, in October, Rosecrans succeeded Buell. Late in December, he moved upon Bragg at Murfreesburo, and fought the battle of Stone's River, after which Bragg again withdrew.

But in Virginia the Union forces met still another disaster before the year's end. Notwithstanding McClellan's repulse of Lee's advance at Antietam, the authorities at Washington were dissatisfied with his management of the army. On November 6, Lincoln put Burnside in command. Burnside at once moved down the lower Rappahannock to a point opposite Fredericksburg, with the intention to get between Lee's array and Richmond. Finally he decided to cross the river and make an assault on Lee's army. A crossing was effected on the night of December 12, and the attack was delivered the next day. Lee, occupying a strong position, repulsed Burnside with immense slaughter.

The principal banks in the North had been forced to suspend specie payments in 1861, but there was no such widespread suffering from the war as there was in the South. The public debt had increased from $64,000,000, on July 1, 1860, to $90,000,000 in 1861, and to more than $500,000,000 in 1862. While McClellan lay inactive in the Peninsula, it was estimated that the debt was increasing at the rate of $2,000,000 a day. However, Secretary Chase manage the finances with ability, and the business men of the North never lost confidence in the government. The Legal Tender Act, providing for the issue of $500,000,000 in 6% bonds and $150,000,000 in notes bearing no interest-popularly called "Greenbacks,'--was of questionable constitutionality, but it served the purpose. The war loans had an indirect result of great importance, for they led to the establishment of a system of National Banks, just as the 'war tariffs laid the foundation of the protective system. Still the opponents of President Lincoln's Administration made gains in the elections toward the close of the year.

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