This is from a fellow teacher D. Fraser and presented regularly at STAO.
Special
credit to "How to think about Weird Things: Critical thinking for a New Age."
Theodore Schlick, Jr. & Lewis Vaughn. 1995. Mayfield Publishing Company.
ISBN 415-960-3222 for providing the foundation for this perennially popular talk at STAO.
All our science, measured against reality, is primitive and childlike - and yet it is the most precious thing we have Albert Einstein
Pseudoscience includes a diverse assortment of phenomena and claims which, in principle, are scientifically testable BUT for which there has been a history of failure under scientific scrutiny. Often referred to as paranormal, those supporting such claims often consider the causes to be "supernatural" that is acting outside the known physical laws of the universe. In other cases, the phenomena are claimed to be natural manifestations of "yet to be discovered" processes.
The real purpose of the scientific method is to make sure Nature hasn't misled you into thinking you know something you don't actually know. Robert M. Pirsig
Science is much more than testing hypotheses. Science is first and foremost about HOW TO TEST HYPOTHESES.
The roots of science are firmly planted in a physical universe. Science is the attempt to understand this universe objectively; free from bias and prejudgment. Scientists and their methods are NOT totally free from bias but their methods are our best attempt to minimize or isolate such bias. The scientific method might best be called the SKEPTICAL METHOD. It should assume almost nothing and let the data speak for itself. It must negate opinion, desire, expectation and belief. Faith (in the vernacular) has no place in science. (Editor's note: of core commitment and a belief in the orderliness of the world is a fundamental presuppositional stance for all sciencing).
Science may be performed by humans who have biases but that does not mean that science is no more objective than mythology. Science is not close minded and bias. The belief in something without or before the examination of credible evidence is the defining element of bias and prejudice (pre-judging)!
It is the obligation of science teachers to make this whole truth about the nature of science understood by their students. Students must be made aware of the distinct qualities of science which have not only lead to the "wonders of modern technology", but also to the demystification of a "demon haunted world". Students should be encouraged to continue this tradition of questioning and evaluation as they are inundated with the vast arrays of information and propaganda in today's popular culture.
Skepticism must be a part of every explorer's toolkit, or we will lose our way.
There are wonders enough out there without our inventing any.
Carl Sagan (The Demon-Haunted World. 1995)
...a skeptic is one who is willing to question any claim to truth, asking for
clarity in definition, consistency in logic, and adequacy of evidence.
Paul Kurtz (Skeptical Inquirer. winter 1994)
We are constantly misled by the ease with which our minds fall into the ruts of one
or two experiences.
Sir William Osler
Bias is THE enemy of truth. In order to obtain valid information about our physical universe it is essential that every precaution be taken to eliminate or reduce investigator and/or subject bias. This is critically important when we realise the extent to which bias is "hard-wired" into the human brain. (see The Belief Engine, James Alcock, Skeptical Inquirer. May, 1995)
A placebo is a "dummy" drug (sugar pill) or treatment administered to a test subject. When the placebo is effective (and it often is, see below), the subject reports or demonstrates a real or perceived effect. In other words the response to a placebo may be very real, or imagined, BUT it results from, not the physical treatment, but the expectations of the test subject.
Clinical studies indicate that about 35% of subjects experience pain relief with a placebo. By comparison, about 75% of patients report relief from morphine.
facilitated communication
Kirlian photography
homeopathy
electroacupuncture
aromatherapy
astrology
Bermuda triangle
chiropractic
channelling
massage therapy
numerology
spontaneous human combustion
therapeutic touch
alien abductions
There are many reasons why people are easily deluded or willing to believe in explanations which are "far fetched". A key feature lies in the very way our brains collect, synthesize and interpret information. Another lies in our poor understanding of what constitutes GOOD evidence.
1. I tried it and it worked
2. Someone else tried it, and it worked
3. Dr. X says it works
4. Dr. X's observations of several patients show that it works
5. An ancient practice or folklore shows that it works
6. A scientific study shows that it works
7. I can't explain what just happened to me - it must be supernatural
Our brains and nervous systems constitute a belief-generating machine, a system that evolved to assure not truth, logic, and reason, but survival. James Alcock (Skeptical Inquirer. May 1995)
Our brains are constantly trying to gain understanding about our environment. In particular, our brains look for regularities and attempt to assign causal relationships to them. Our brains over-emphasize associations between "paired" events and under-emphasize non-associations. A distant acquaintance phones you only moments after you were "just talking about them" your brain considers the event "spooky" and perhaps evidence of precognition. Your brain does not give equal consideration to the opposing evidence - that countless times when you have talked about people they DO NOT call you!
We are very quick to "trust" the reports and testimonials of others, especially friends and family. If your best friend "saw a ghost" you, knowing they are an honest person, would find difficulty disbelieving them even though no hard evidence of the occurrence was available. You would not be quick to question their story - it would seem unnecessary. A grade 11 student of mine recently told me that she was absolutely convinced that ghosts exist because her mother and grandmother had both seen a ghost on the same night.
We are much too quick to accept the views and opinions of those we consider authorities or "experts" on a subject. Countless worthless books are promoted by placing a prominent "Ph.D." after the author's name on the book cover. The author may in fact have little or NO expertise or specialized training on the topic of the book. We often accept the opinions of non-experts for whom we have some high regard - sports heroes and movie stars are often used to market products of dubious value.
We often want to believe in something to such an extent that we have little or no regard for the nature or quality of the evidence presented. If we "believe" in aliens, then we report a moving light in the night sky as a UFO or flying saucer. If we can't account for several hours from the night before, we might believe we were abducted by aliens! Similarly, if we "believe" in ghosts, then strange bumps in the night are taken as strong evidence in support of this belief.
An important influencing factor in many stories of paranormal phenomena is that of false memory. Our memory is not a static record or catalogue of past events. Our memories are constantly being rewritten, revised and updated with new information. It may be disconcerting, but the fact is, our memories are routinely and purposely altered by our own brains to better match recent information. For this reason it is not a good idea to place too much faith in the recollections of unusual events by eye witnesses - especially if it is obvious that the witness wants you to believe their unusual story. The story will be altered to meet with your expectations. Unfortunately memories often seem "so real" that it is difficult for people to accept the fact that their memories may well contain fabrications and falsehoods.
The workings of the subconscious can have a profound effect on our actions and interpretations of a variety of phenomena. Most people are familiar with the OUIJA board effect where by movements on the board are controlled subconsciously. This ideomotor effect can have grave ramifications (see Facilitated Communication). This is largely responsible for the "mysterious" actions of a dowsing rod. Such actions occur without any conscious awareness on the part of the individual. In fact, the people committing the actions are usually 100 % convinced that they are not in any way responsible for the physical movement of the dowsing rod.
Students are VERY interested in these topics. They find the topics of UFO's, ESP, ghosts and other paranormal phenomena captivating. Students, like most people, would like to believe in any or all of them. By ignoring them we are "dismissing" ideas they feel strongly about.
The claims of pseudoscience are indeed within the realm of scientific investigation. Any claim about a phenomena which is measurable (i.e. observable) is open to scientific scrutiny.
A scientific investigation of a pseudoscience topic is the BEST way to clearly present
what science is all about. It makes GREAT science.
When students determine the density of a block of wood they are TOLD and may believe
they are "doing science". When they compare the "claims" of the
psychic with the "observations" of a double-blind experiment they KNOW what
"doing science" really is.
It provides an ideal opportunity to examine the rich history of science. After all, science first made a name for itself by testing and refuting religious and cultural dogma and by refuting common sense! Science alone established, beyond reasonable doubt, that the earth is round and very old, that numerous diseases are caused by invisible living things, and that the sun is stationary - EVEN when anyone can step outside and actually witness it moving across the sky!
Skepticism is a critically important tool in assessing the validity of any claim. We are providing students with a vital tool for protecting themselves from charlatans, quacks and demagogues - and there are many. The skeptical mind, in the face of little or no verifiable evidence is THE first line of defense against unfounded claims.
The skeptical mind is not cynical or lacking in imagination. The skeptical mind simply stubbornly refuses to pass judgement, for or against any claim, without first having the support of objective evidence.
Gallup Poll results USA -1990!
49 % believe in ESP.
25 % feel they have experienced ESP.
21 % believe in reincarnation.
17 % believe they have communicated with the dead.
25 % believe in ghosts.
14 % believe they've been in a haunted house.
55 % believe in the Devil and 10% have communicated with "him".
14 % have consulted a fortune-teller or psychic.
25 % believe in astrology.
46 % believe in psychic or spiritual healing.
25 % believe they have healed their body using mental power alone.
27 % believe extraterrestrials have visited the earth.
Of 190 high school students
43 % thought the Noah's ark flood story was definitely or probably true.
20 % believed in communication with the dead.
19 % thought humans and dinosaurs coexisted.
20 % believe in black magic.
16 % believe in Atlantis.
22 % believed in ghosts.
From personal experience I can tell you that many of my students report believing in astrology, UFOs (and the alien "autopsy"), dowsing, Nostradamus and alternative medicine. Our community recently raised many thousands of dollars to finance a trip and alternative unproven cancer treatment in Mexico for a young high school student. She succumbed to her cancer a few months after returning from Mexico.
Last year numerous schools and law enforcement agencies in the US spent tens of thousands of dollars on a useless devise called the "Quattro tracker". It was a classic example of taking the bait, hook, line, and sinker! The "tracker" is a dowsing rod which is said to be able to locate a wide variety of items - special models are available for finding a variety of narcotics, criminal evidence, and even golf balls! School principals could be seen walking the halls dowsing student lockers for the presence of drugs!
The "tracker" is little more than a car antenna pivoting on a plastic handle. The handle contains a piece of paper which contains some sort of "harmonic resonance" energy stuff. The paper obtains this "energy imprint" when an electromagnetic radiation transfer device (a photocopier) is using to transmit an image from a Polaroid snapshot of the item in question! (I’m serious!). Your bodies own natural energy fields, those of the tracker and those of the drugs do some sort of harmonic energy resonating mumbo jumbo and, viola, the metal rod points to the locker in question. Even though the "technology" to make them does not vary from "target item" to "target item" (same Polaroid camera, film and Canon copier) it is not surprising that the "trackers" sold for locating cocaine are much more expensive than the models designed and sold for locating golf balls in the rough. The FBI recently shut the company down, charging them with fraud. What should the principals be charged with?
In excess of 400 000 women are involved in a class action legal suit over damages caused by silicon breast implants. As recently as last month, regular television ads advised Canadian women with silicon breast implants to obtain register for legal standing in the pending litigation. Dow Chemical offered $2 billion in an attempt to settle out of court. This failed and Dow declared bankruptcy. NO clinical evidence exists in support of the claim that silicon breast implants cause systemic disease. Although SBI's do result in localized tissue trauma, numerous large epidemiological studies (published in JAMA and the New England Journal of Medicine) found NO correlation between SBI's and serious illness. This fact has not prevented millions of dollars from being awarded to claimants in law suits. Juries have awarded huge cash settlements to women who testify that "they know" the implants caused their serious medical disorders.
Thousands of autistic children have been supplied with special "keyboards" which, with the help of a "facilitator", they use to communicate. The facilitator steadies the typing hand/arm of the autistic person supposedly enabling them to type in a controlled manner. Syracuse University has an "Institute of Facilitated Communication" where it has trained literally thousands of care givers in "FC". Many autistic children have, using FC obtained high school and even college degrees by communicating through their keyboards with their facilitator. Facilitated communication was labeled a miracle breakthrough and gained rapid support around the world.
Some autistic children began to report serious sexual and physical abuse by their parent(s). In some cases these children were taken from their parents and in some cases fathers spent time in jail for the alleged assaults. Shockingly, results of numerous exhaustive studies indicate that Facilitated Communication does not work! All the communications of the autistic individuals were actually being authored subconsciously by the facilitator via an ideomotor response. The last I heard, the Institute of Facilitated Communication at Syracuse University was still going strong.
In addition to horror stories of breast implant law suits and FC in the court room some paranormal beliefs are used explicitly in criminal investigations and prosecutions. Many police agencies employ "psychics" to help them find evidence, missing persons or to get a "reading" about a suspect. In the city of Watkins Glen N.Y., the Office of the Public Defender may use a psychic to read the "auras" of potential jurors! Clearly the New York Judicial System accepts the use of "supernatural powers" in the process of determining of the guilt or innocence of a defendant. This is medieval "witching" reborn.
North Americans spend more than $10 billion each year on alternative medicines and treatments. Public health care funds and health insurance dollars are being redirected to these pseudoscientific remedies. People may have all sorts of serious ailments diagnosed by having a iridologist examine their iris not signs of disease throughout the body. They have these same ailments treated by having the soles of their feet massaged or crystals positioned over their bodies. It is quite fashionable to be treated by "therapeutic touch" (which involves no touching). In this case your bodies energy fields are "adjusted" by the practitioner.
Many of these New Age medical alternatives are "traditional methods". These ancient practices are assumed to have value solely because of the historical status. Everyone is well aware of the many contributions of folk medicines to modern day. Many herbal remedies are known to contain biologically active ingredients and this knowledge has often lead to the isolation of new medicines. However, tradition use alone is no guarantee that a treatment is beneficial or even safe.
Ancient Babylonians made many important decisions only after first examining the livers of sacrificed sheep for clues about the future and all manner of things! This invention, Hepatoscopy, faded into obscurity, while a less popular invention of the same day, astrology, is more popular now than it ever was! In Ethiopia it is still widely believed that gonorrhea is caused by urinating in the moonlight. In India many thousands of people die of venomous snake bites each year. Of these, well over half seek treatment from a faith healer rather than from a modern medical facility (with quick attention at a hospital, the vast majority of victims are successfully treated). It is note worthy that most victims can not identify the species of snake which bit them. Those who were bitten by non-venomous species (at least as common as venomous ones) become "success stories" for the faith healers while those that were indeed bitten by venomous snakes die at the hands of the faith healers. These unfortunate individuals of course become examples of victims that "even the faith healers couldn't save".
"A Little Gem" A leading authority on cancer recently made her findings known. Actress Sharon Stone gave a talk to the National Press Club titled "A Holistic Approach to the War on Cancer". She described how she had cured herself of lymphoma (a virulent cancer) by "a lot of positive thinking and a lot of holistic healing". She specifically avoided coffee, "When I stopped drinking coffee, ten days later, I had no tumors in any of my lymph glands". Her publicist later admitted that the actress never had cancer. Why was she chosen to speak?
It is well known that past President of the United States, Ronald Reagan, routinely consulted his wife's professional astrologer to determine the best times for him to sign international disarmament agreements and make decisions of national importance. Incidentally Ronald Reagan repeatedly and vividly described his own role in liberating Nazi concentration camp victims. His epic World War II story however never happened. It was part of a movie script and a glaring example of false memory. In contrast you might inquire as to the President's commitment to the pursuit of science.
Why should we subsidize intellectual curiosity? Ronald Reagan (1980)
Is it Right to Promote Unproven Treatments? What's the harm?
The arguments:
If the treatment itself is harmless, why shouldn't suffering people be given a chance
to try it?
Why not spend $10 000 on an unorthodox remedy if you're going to die of cancer anyway! At
least its worth a chance.
Why not spend $50 to have your water well "witched". You're going to spend $4000
to drill the well anyway so why not add a little "possibly" beneficial
information?
There may not be any scientific evidence to suggest that it works but I know of dozens or
even thousands of testimonials.
Why not try standing on your head to treat your cancer. It does no harm, it is free, and
it "might" help. Certainly placing all those bioenergy fields, auras, chakras
and meridian lines in an inverted state must have some measurable effect on your health
and well being! At the very least it will give you and your phrenologist something to talk
about.
Considering the many dangers posed by blind belief in unproven claims as described above, we would be well advised to take this question of harm very seriously. It is one thing to believe in the Easter bunny, tooth fairies and Santa Claus when you're a child, but its quite another to believe in any snake oil salesman that comes along.
Use SEARCH as a basis for the Inquiry:
1. State the claim.
2. Examine the Evidence for the claim.
3. Consider Alternative hypotheses.
4. Rate, according to the Criteria of adequacy, each Hypothesis.
Testability: A hypothesis is scientific only if it is testable, that is, only if it predicts something other than what it was introduced to explain.
Fruitfulness: Other things being equal, the best hypothesis is the one that is the most fruitful, that is, makes the most novel predictions.
Scope: Other things being equal, the best hypothesis is the one that has the greatest scope, that is, that explains and predicts the most diverse phenomena.
Simplicity: Other things being equal, the best hypothesis is the simplest one, that is, the one that makes the fewest assumptions.
Conservatism: Other things being equal, the best hypothesis is the one that is the most conservative, that is, the one that fits best with established beliefs.
Dowsing, Witching & Divining
Have your students test the abilities of dowser. It is critical that the dowser and investigators agree before hand as to exactly what "powers" the dowser has and how they will be measured. For example:
1. Can dowser the detect the presence of standing water in a sealed bottle?
2. Are dowsers powers are not influenced by the plastic bottle?
3. Are dowsers powers influenced by the presence of "near by" water sources. i.e. can a specific individual bottle can be "dowsed"?
4. Is the dowsing is unaffected by the presence of a thin piece of cardboard between the water and the dowser. (this would later be used to make cardboard covers to "blind" the dowser and investigator from any knowledge of the contents of a bottle)
Be absolutely sure to have the dowser agree before hand as to what will be regarded as a "success" and what will be regarded as a "failure". The dowser must be in full agreement with the experimental design. Once the dowser begins the experiment, any "misses" claimed to be due either to unfairness of the experiment, or to previously unmentioned factors would constitute a failure.
Astrology
Test the accuracy of horoscopes. Use a model similar to that of Michel Gauquelin who provided detailed horoscopes to subjects and had them rate the accuracy of the horoscopes. (see Schlick & Vaughn 1995)
Homeopathy
Don't be concerned about liability in using your students as guinea pigs for drug testing - remember homeopathic "remedies" are completely safe - they contain NO active ingredients (INTENTIONALLY!). You could perform a double blind trial on a commercial "insomnia" treatment and use sugar water as a control placebo. Have each student try both treatments (blinded of course) on alternating nights. They can rate the treatments for "causing drowsiness". Tally the class results and interpret.
ESP
This is easy and fun. Have students attempt all manner of mind reading, telekinesis and clairvoyance. Record outcomes and analyze. Ensure that the tests are double-blinded. This is THE VITAL LESSON. Have videos available (or professional magicians!) to demonstrate the ease of using trickery to create the illusion of ESP.
Testing the Psychic
Have your students devise careful tests to investigate a volunteer psychic or magician. Magicians are usually less offended by this idea as they acknowledge that they do not have supernatural powers. A psychic on the other hand may also readily agree to being tested if he/she honestly believes they have special powers. The essential key here again is to devise properly controlled trials. Some careful examination of similar trials by experts such as James Randi are highly recommended. There is nothing worse than thinking your controls are adequate only to be deceived by a professional. You should make your students well aware of the limitations of both themselves and YOU at designing proper controls. It is by no means easy to guard against trickery when you are not familiar with slight of hand methods. Careful observation can be completely useless if you are not looking at the right place from the right angle at the right time!
Be wary. In all likelihood a seasoned professional psychic or magician will not allow themselves to be caught in the act of cheating by amateurs. Make your students aware of their own serious limitations in testing slight of hand artists. They very best people at "testing" such individuals are other professional magicians who know exactly what to look out for.
Literature Search
This is a simple and ideal introduction to the subject of pseudoscience. The students can pick their favorite topic - crop circles, aliens, Nostradamus, the Farmer's almanac, fire walking or spontaneous human combustion (don't encourage lab work for these last two!). There are countless interesting topics and there is (unfortunately) a ready supply of information in support of all such claims. The internet is the ideal source for much of this information. Students could be assembled into pairs or teams to get both sides of the story. The skeptics version of most or all of these subjects is also readily available over the internet. This makes for an excellent opportunity for class presentations and/or debates of "the evidence".
Prediction is very difficult, especially about the future. Niels Bohr
Evidence in a Court of Law
Would you agree to the use of psychics in a court of law in order to assist in determining the guilt or innocence of a defendant? How about an astrologer, palm reader or telepath? If not, why not?
Consider the results of the use of Facilitate Communication in court rooms. Should evidence be validated through experiment?
The "Placebo" Benefits of Alternative Treatments
Many people advocate the rights of individuals to seek out alternative unproven therapies for serious diseases such as cancer and AIDS. They support their views with the argument that even if the treatment is a sham, at least the patient thinks they are being treated. This makes them happier and gives them hope - the placebo effect. This is a compelling argument. Even patients (and their families) who are suffering from a terminal illness benefit from hope and can have a higher quality of life in their last days and months. However, if this justifies the offer false hope, what are the costs? How would you feel if you found out that your own doctor had charged you $10 000 for a fake treatment in order to provide you with the benefits of this placebo effect. What if that same doctor was driving her/his new Mercedes around town and you knew that she/he had sold you an expensive but knowingly useless "new experimental drug" for treating your child's leukemia? If we don't want our doctors to lie to us, how can we benefit most from the placebo effect?
Above all else, keep the following in mind:
The method of science, as stodgy and grumpy as it may seem, is far more important than the findings of science. Carl Sagan
It's good to keep an open mind, but not so open that your brains fall out!
How to think about Weird Things: Critical
thinking for a New Age. Theodore Schlick, Jr. & Lewis Vaughn. 1995. Mayfield
Publishing Company. ISBN 415-960-3222 ($16.95 Can.)
A superb book which can act as the basis for a mini unit or course in critical
thinking skills. This text is highly recommended for teachers of Science in Society.
The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. Carl Sagan. 1995.
Random House. ISBN 0-394-53512-X ($35.95 Can.)
Another exceptional book. Sagan presents a powerful argument for the teaching of
science and skepticism. He clearly outlines the threats to free thinking. The book
provides welcome support for the need for quality science in today's "Demon-Haunted
World".
Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Martin Gardner. 1952. Dover
Publications. ISBN 0-486-20394-8. ($6.95 US)
Don't let the year fool you. This is an excellent introduction to pseudoscience by one
of the world's best known advocates of scientific literacy. Gardner describes countless
extraordinary "followings" from pyramidology, medical quacks & cults,
dowsing and flat and hollow earths. The book is a wonderfully humorous read and really
provides the reader with an important historical perspective on quackery and charlatans.
The most entertaining book I've read in years.
The Unnatural Nature of Science: Why Science does not make (common) sense.
Lewis Wolpert. 1993. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-92980-2 ($19.95 US)
An excellent discussion of what science is and isn't. If you've ever wondered why so
many people have trouble understanding science this is the book for you. Wolpert clearly
distinguishes art, science and technology and provides valuable insights into their
origins. A very worthwhile read for any science teacher.
Flim - Flam! Psychics, ESP, Unicorns and other Delusions. James Randi. 1982.
Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-198-3 ($26.50 Can.)
A wonderful collection of investigations into the "paranormal" by the
entertaining magician and skeptic "The Amazing Randi". Randi is perhaps the best
known of all skeptics. The Randi Foundation currently offers a prize of nearly $1 million
to anyone who can prove under test conditions that they have paranormal powers. Very
entertaining and revealing.
Science, Good, Bad and Bogus. Martin Gardner. 1989. Prometheus Books.
ISBN 0-87975-573-3
A must for any discussion of ESP and other psychic phenomena. Gardner exposes the
flaws in the "scientific" study of famous psychics. Again, a very fascinating
and humorous view into the world of the spoon benders and mind readers.
Secrets of the Supernatural: Investigating the World's Occult Mysteries. Joe Nickell & John Fischer. 1991. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-685-3
Provide some excellent examples of investigations. Included is a haunted house (in Toronto), a crystal skull and a miraculous painting. The discussion of spontaneous human combustion is well worth the price.
Astrology: True or False? A Scientific Evaluation. Roger Culver & Philip
Ianna. 1988. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-483-4
A very detailed analysis of astrology. If you're looking for an in depth evaluation
this is the book for you. The authors attempt to give astrology a fair hearing but the
damming evidence is overwhelming.
Consumer Alert: Dateline NBC. 02/14/96. An exposé of the Quattro "Tracker" dowsing device. Students get a kick out of the idea of a principal "witching" for drugs in lockers. 1-800-420-2626 (about $50 Can.)
Nova: Secrets of the Psychics. 1993(?). Marlin Motion Pictures. 1-905-890-1500. A super entertaining look at an interesting assortment of paranormal phenomena - from palmistry and astrology to Soviet psychic healers and psychic detectives. I show all my science classes this video and they all really enjoy it. Thought provoking discussions always follow. (about $50 Can.)
Frontline: Prisoners of Silence. October 19,1993. PBS WTVS. A shocking look at facilitated communication. An apparent breakthrough is nothing but smoke and mirrors. This video is powerful stuff. My students often ask to borrow it for use in seminar presentations for other courses. (Expensive at about $200 but unbeatable for bringing home the true human costs of untested claims)
The James Randi Foundation. Get on the e-mail list for regular updates of Randi's ongoing investigations into the paranormal. Visit http://www.randi.org