NOTES ON THE FORMATION OF BELGIUM
(1) The states involved were :
- Within the Holy Empire :
- The Austrian Netherlands (also Southern Netherlands or Pays belgiques) :
encompassing the following principalities joined in a personal union by
the Habsburgs :
- the Duchy of Brabant and part of the County of Dalhem,
- the County of Flanders, formally still one unit, but de facto divided
into - Eastern Flanders
- Western Flanders,
- the County of Hainaut,
- the Duchy of Limburg,
- the Duchy of Luxembourg,
- the Lordship of Mechelen,
- the County of Namur,
- the Town and Lordship of Tournai and the Tournaisis.
- The County of Fagnolle,
- The Lordship of Kessenich,
- The Principality of Liège, to which were united the Counties of Horn
(in the Netherlands) and of Loon,
- The County of Rekem,
- The Lordship of Sint-Pieters-Voeren, one of the possessions of the
Teutonic Order in the area,
- The Principality of Stavelot-Malmédy.
- The Duchy of Bouillon, a French protectorate.
The name Belgium
The ancient name of Belgica was revived in the 16th century to indicate
the lands which had been united under Burgundian rule. As such it referred
to most of the present-day Netherlands and to present-day Luxembourg, but
only to part of present-day Belgium.
Gradually the word - mostly used by intellectuals - became a synonym of
Netherlands and of all that was related to it. For instance :
- Belgium Foederatum = The United Provinces.
- Confessio Belgica = Protestant Church of the United Provinces.
- Lingua Belgica = Dutch.
- Nova Belgica = Nieuw Nederland = New Netherlands = New York
It was only at the end of the 18th century that a derived French adjective
- belgique - started to be used for the territories under Habsburg rule,
which proclaimed their independence - as the États belgiques réunis - in
1790.
Later the derived names of Belgique and België (sometimes also Belgenland)
gradually also started to be used, but once again only for the (former)
Austrian possessions : in 1814 the allies still made a difference between
"Belgique" and "le Pays de Liège" (Furthermore the arbitrary frontiers of
the governments general they then established prove also that they didn't
consider the region as one unity).
It was only after the revolt of 1830 that the names Belgique and België,
started to cover all territories.
(2) The other options that were rejected were :
- the creation of an independent state.
This possibility seems to have been briefly advanced by the allies, but
it was rapidly dropped as the population showed little interest as :
- there existed nothing like a common Belgian "feeling" or "indentity"
at that moment, the different regions still being attached to their
former particularisms,
- those regions that had briefly experienced an independent "Belgian"
state in 1790 feared that independence would once again bring them
anarchy, chaos and war.
- a restoration of Habsburg rule.
This possibility was favoured by the local ruling classes, hoping that
the return of conservative Habsburg rule would also mean the restoration
of their former privileges, abolished during French rule.
Austria itself showed however no interest at all, prefering extending its
zone of influence in Italy.
- a division of the area between the Netherlands (North of the Meuse river)
and Prussia (South of the Meuse).
As the fixation of the exact frontiers however caused problems, Prussia
itself soon dropped the idea, prefering to keep its safe Rhine frontier.
(3) The opponents to the Dutch regime included :
- Catholics, who feared "Calvinist" domination,
- Liberals, who were opposed to the authoritarian rule of King Willem I,
- Francophones (both in Flanders and in Wallonia), who were opposed to the
introduction of Dutch as the official language.
But whatever the reasons for their opposition may have been, the principal
aim of most of the insurgents - whose leaders nearly all were Francophones
or French - seems to have been the reunion of "Belgium" to France (French
flags were among the first to be used during the revolt).
And it was only after this project had been rejected by the Great Powers,
that they accepted the idea of an independent Belgian state, which came to
be dominated by a Francophone and Francophile elite, despite the fact that
the majority of its population didn't speak nor understand French (not only
in Flanders, but also in parts of Wallonia and in German Old Belgium)
For more on the all dominating linguistic aspect of Belgian history see :
Flanders (to be added)
(4) The successes of the insurgents were not only the result of French support,
but also of the attitude of the two successive Dutch commanders sent to
quell the revolt :
- InfGen. Willem Frederik George Lodewijk, de prins van Oranje (1792 - 1849)
did not commit his troops, hoping that negociations about the granting of
administrative autonomy to the southern provinces would bring a solution.
- ColGen. Willem Frederik Karel, Prins der Nederlanden, Prins van Oranje-
Nassau (1797 - 1881), did not fully commit his troops, allowing by this
error the insurgents to extend their power, especially in Wallonia.
- InfGen. Willem Frederik George Lodewijk, de prins van Oranje (2x).
Hoping to win a throne, he started negociations with the insurgents and
on Oct 16 proclaimed the independence of Belgium with himself as head of
state, ordering all Dutch troops in the area to depose their arms and to
retreat north of the Rhine river.
The first part of his proclamation had no real consequences and he was
even forced to go into London exile by the Dutch king. There he at first
confirmed his proclamation (Jan 11 1831), but later he made peace with
his father and in Aug 1831 he even took command of the Dutch army trying
to reconquer Belgium.
The second part of his proclamation did however have serious consequences
as the Dutch troops - with some exceptions - followed his orders, leaving
the whole part of the kingdom south of the Rhine river open to Belgian
conquest and by Nov 1830 the provisional government also ruled :
- Flanders, except the fortress of Antwerp [Fortress Commander : LtGen.
David Henricus, Baron Chassé "Generaal Bajonet" (1765 - 1849)], which
held out until Dec 1832 when forced to capitulate by French troops.
- the (Dutch-Flemish) province of Limburg, except the City of Maastricht
- the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, except the City of Luxembourg.
(Only the present-day Netherlands provinces of Zeeland and Noord Brabant
escaped conquest, their military commanders - following the example of the
local commanders of Antwerp, Luxembourg and Maastricht (s.a.) - refusing
to follow the orders of Prince Willem)
(5) Usually the date of Oct 04 1830 is given as the date of the proclamation of
Belgian independence.
But some authors - mainly Flemish nationalists looking for legal arguments
against the existence of Belgium - contest this date and even pretend that
- if one also excludes the proclamation of Oct 16 (s.a.) - there never was
a declaration of independence (and that Belgium consequently is an illegal
state only created and maintained by the major powers).
Although not all of their arguments are convincing, it seemed useful - or
at least interesting - to list them :
- Many (most ?) countries have their National Day on the date independence
was proclaimed. In Belgium this is not the case (Jul 21 instead of Oct 4)
simply because there was nothing to commemorate on Oct 4, and one had to
choose another date. (perhaps the weakest of the arguments)
- the text of Oct 4 was not a formal declaration of independence which can
be compared to other unilateral declarations of independence [like those
of the United Provinces (1581), of the US (1776), of the États belgiques
réunis (1789), of Ireland (1916), of Vietnam (1945), etc] as it gives no
moral, political, legal or actual arguments to justify the secession, but
only states that "separation of the Belgian provinces from Holland by
force" took place.
[According to Prof. Michel Magits ("Het zelfsbeschikkingsrecht tijdens
de Belgische revolutie - een onderzoek naar de houding van de Belgische
constituante 1830 - 1831", Brussels 1995) the text did deliberately not
give justifications for the secession, mainly because the insurgents had
no intention at all to establish an sovereign state, but simply saw their
regime as a temporary administration - for which no legal justification
was needed - until the annexation to France]
- Likewise the text did not explicitely proclaim Belgian independence on
Oct 4, once again simply stating that "the Belgian provinces ... will
become an independent state".
And according to the authors this vague statement was never followed by
an actual dated independence declaration. The only attempt to do so was
made on Nov 12 when delegate de Celles proposed the National Congress to
issue a decree formally proclaiming independence. It was rejected four
days later as being a waist of time and unnecessary.
International position of Belgium 1830 - 1831
The original reactions of the major powers on the revolt and the secession
were divided :
- the UK was at first opposed to the secession, but later it supported the
idea of a separate Belgian entity - if possible under the authority of the
exiled Prince Willem (s.a.) - as the only way to prevent annexation of the
area by France.
- France was immediately in favour of the secession, hoping to annex all or
at least part of the area.
- Austria, Prussia and Russia were strongly opposed. Russia even prepared a
large army to march on Brussels to help the Dutch, but the Polish rising
prevented its departure.
To find a solution a conference started in London in Nov 1830.
At first there was little support in favour of an independent Belgian state
and the French even proposed a new partition of the area :
- the province of Antwerpen - except the city itself - and the province of
Limburg west of the Meuse river - except Maastricht - would remain to the
Netherlands, as was a small part of the province of (Southern) Brabant,
the former Oranje Lordship of Diest,
- the parts of the provinces of Liège, of Limburg and of Namur east of the
Meuse river as well as the cities of Maastricht and of Liège (both west of
the river) and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg would be assigned to Prussia,
- part of the province of Oost-Vlaanderen, nearly all of the province of
(Southern) Brabant, the province of Hainaut and the province of Namur west
of the Meuse would go to France,
- the provinces of West-Vlaanderen and of Zeeland, most of the province of
Oost-Vlaanderen and the city of Antwerpen were to form the Free State of
Antwerpen (or more or less a restored County of Flanders), under British
protection.
But finally the Powers - headed by the UK, possibly still hoping to install
Prince Willem on the throne - decided to give a Belgian state a chance and
by the Protocols of London of Jan 1831, the separation of the southern
provinces was confirmed, the exact conditions having to be fixed by a Belgian
-Dutch Treaty :
- a first Treaty ("of the XVIII Articles") of Jun 1831 was seen as too
favourable to Belgium by the Dutch. It was rejected and followed by a
Dutch attempt of reconquest (Aug 1831).
- although defeated the Dutch now obtained a much more favourable Treaty
("of the XIV Articles") which they however also rejected (Nov 1831).
Belgium and France 1831
In early 1831 the provisional rulers of Belgium hadn't given up the idea of
a union with France.
1830
Dec 24 : the Belgian authorities proposed annexation to France.
1831
Jan 11 : Fearing problems with the UK, France rejected the proposition.
(but continued agitation for the annexation of some frontier
regions - Bouillon, Mariembourg, Philippeville and even the Grand
Duchy of Luxembourg - until Apr)
Instead, two French princes were proposed as candidates for the
Belgian throne :
- Auguste Charles Eugène Napoléon (August Karl Eugen Napoléon) Duc
de (Herzog von) Leuchtenberg (1810 - 1835), son of Eugène de
Beauharnais, a bonapartist candidate no longer supported by the
French government after Jan 21
- Louis Charles Philippe Raphaël d’Orléans, duc de Nemours (1814–
1896), son of Louis-Philippe, King of the French
Feb 03 : the Duc de Nemours was elected King by the Belgian Congress.
But as the UK immediately reacted and threatened to support an
Orangist revolt, Louis-Philippe declined the offer.
After this most Francophile leaders rallied to the new Belgian state, getting
leading positions in the administration and in the army of a state which for
a long time was as French as France could be.
The idea of a union with France however never completely disappeared and is
still (2004) advocated by minor Walloon groups and political parties, like
the Rassemblement Wallonie-France (RWF) [headed by Paul-Henri Gendebien, a
descendant of Alexandre Gendebien - one of the principal leaders of the
revolt of 1830 - and proposer of the annexation in 1830].
(althouogh leaders of the major Parti Socialiste sometimes also threaten to
unite with France when discussions with the Flemings are not going the way
they want ...)
Orangists
Orangists (Orangisten) was the name given to the inhabitants of the southern
provinces remaining loyal to the Dutch king after the start of the revolt in
Aug 1830. They included :
- Dutchspeaking Flemings fearing that a new, Francophone dominated, entity
would endanger the existence of their language and culture. They would
later be among the founders of the so-called "Flemish Movement"
- Francophone members of the economical elite - as well in Flanders as in
Wallonia - who feared that secession of the Netherlands would end their
lucrative business with the Dutch oversea dependencies.
In the first stage of the revolt the Orangists continued to head the local
administrations in those territories where Dutch troops remained present.
But once these were gone, Belgian administrators easely took over.
In early 1831 there was a brief revival of the movement and a revolt - to be
headed by Jakob, Baron Van der Smissen (1788 - 1856) and to be supported by
the British - was even prepared in Feb 1831, but nothing came of it.
The Orangists were now eliminated from the local positions they still held
and after the Treaty of 1839 and a last failed coup attempt - once again
headed by Baron Van der Smissen (s.a.) - the movement gradually faded away,
most members joining the Belgian Liberal Party.
The idea of the re-establishment of the union with the Netherlands however
survived - and still survives - among some Flemish nationalist groups and
parties, like the present-day (2004) Flemish Interest (Vlaams Belang).
(6) The principal clauses of the Treaties of London of 1839 :
- the creation of a neutral state of Belgium, guaranteed by the Great Powers
(Ended de facto in 1914, when Germany invaded Belgium and de jure in 1919
when the Treaty of Versailles was signed),
- the partition of Limburg and Luxembourg,
- the Belgian navigation on the Schelde (Scheldt) river - the only way out
for the important port of Antwerpen - was made subject to the payment of
a toll of 1.5 guilders per ton. (Ended in 1863 when Belgium payed a sum
of 17,141,640 guilders - see also below : Iron Rhine)
Despite this treaty it took some Belgians quite some time to give up all
claims on the frontier regions :
- in 1914 - 1919 political and military leaders asked for the annexation of
the Netherlands provinces of Limburg and Zeeland and of the Grand Duchy of
Luxembourg,
- in 1918 - 1919 nationalist groups - like the Comité de Politique nationale
- asked for the annexation of parts of Limburg, Noord Brabant and Zeeland,
of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg as well as of parts of the Prussian Rhine
Province (including cities like Köln and Düsseldorf).
But all the Belgians eventually got by the Peace Treaty of Versailles of
1919 were :
- the so-called Eastern Cantons
- Neutral Moresnet (claimed since 1831)
- a mandate over Ruanda-Urundi
(all this completed by an economic and financial union with Luxembourg in 1922)
Iron Rhine (1839 - 2005)
As a compensation for the Dutch right to impose the navigation on the
Scheldt river, the treaties of 1839 authorized Belgium to use a direct
landway linking the port of Antwerp to the German industrial zones on the
Rhine.
Based on this clause Belgium constructed in 1869 a railway - running from
Antwerp to Mönchengladbachon in Germany - passing through the southern
Netherlands. The exploitation of the line started however only in 1879 after
the signing in 1873 of a treaty between the two states (giving Belgium a
lease of 99 years on the used area).
The railway - which became known as the Iron Rhine [Ijzeren Rijn, from the
ancient Dutch word for railway (ijzerweg/iron way)] - never enjoyed any
extraterritoriality and was runned by a Belgian private company - the Grand
Central belge - until 1897 when it was sold to the Dutch State Railways.
As a consequence of WWI the use of the line partly declined as most of the
goods were now transported by other ways. Passengers traffic continued
however to be among the most important of Europe until after WWII, when it
also declined. The tract was later only used for military transports and in
1991 it was completely abandoned.
In the late 1990's the Belgian and Flemish governmnents - confronted with
the growing importance of the port of Antwerp and inspired by the European
instructions concerning of the transports of goods by land - started
negociations with the Dutch government for the re-opening of the tract.
All failed and the matterr was therefor submitted to the International Court
of Justice in the Hague, which in May 2005 :
- rejected the Dutch arguments (the treaty of 1873 had expired, the Dutch
State Railways owned the tract since 1897, part of the concerned area had
become a nature reserve)
- followed the Belgian argumentattion (the treaties of 1839 had never been
abolished and are therefor still valid)
- imposed a comprmise for the practical execution of the ruling (Belgium had
to pay the modernization of the tract, the Netherlands had to pay its
maintainance and both countries were to take common measures for the
protection of the nature area)
Normally a first part of the railway should have been actived by Nov 2005.
But new Dutch opposition to the re-activation has postponed it.
ADMINISTRATORS OF GERMAN OCCUPIED BELGIUM DURING WWI AND WWII
ADMINISTRATORS OF GERMAN OCCUPIED BELGIUM DURING WWI
In Aug 1914 German troops invaded Belgium and for the next four years most of the
country was under foreign rule.
GERMAN ADMINISTRATORS
Initially the administration was entrusted to the Etappenverwaltungen attached to
each of the five armies operating in the area. From North to South this were :
- 1st Army (in Northern Belgium)
- 2nd Army (in Central Belgium)
- 3rd Army (in Southern Belgium)
- 4th Army (in Southern Belgium)
- 5th Army (in Southern Belgium)
Commander of the 1st Army
Befehlshaber der I Armee
1914 - 1915 ColGen. Alexander Heinrich
Rudolf von Kluck 1846 - 1934
Commander of the 2nd Army
Befehlshaber der II Armee
1914 - 1915 GenFieldMarsh. Karl Wilhelm
Paul von Bülow 1846 - 1921
Commander of the 3rd Army
Befehlshaber der III Armee
1914 ColGen. Max Clemens Lothar Freiherr
von Hausen 1846 - 1933
Commanders of the 4th Army
Befehlshaber der IV Armee
1914 - 1918 See below.
Commander of the 5th Army
Befehlshaber der V Armee
1914 - 1916 LtGen. Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Otto Ernst
von Hohenzollern, Kronprinz von Preussen
"Deutscher Kronprinz" 1882 - 1951
By early Sep 1914 all armies - except the 4th, which was transferred to the Belgian
-German front in Flanders - had moved to France and until 1916 - when some Belgian
territories where transferred to their Etappenverwaltungen (1) - they were no more
concerned with Belgium's administration.
Belgium itself was now divided into three administrative zones :
- the Etappengebiet of the 4th Army
- the Government General of Belgium (1)
- the Neutral zone of the castle of Boechout at Meise (near Brussels) (2)
ADMINISTRATORS OF THE ETAPPENGEBIET OF THE 4th ARMY
Commanders of the 4th Army
Befehlshaber der IV Armee
(Until 1916 directly subordinated to the military authorities in Berlin, thereafter
to the Army Group "Kronprinz Rupprecht")
(The Etappengebiet was ruled by its own military laws and laws promulgated by the
Governor General were applied only when the commander of the 4th Army confirmed
them)
1914 - 1917 GenFieldMar. Albrecht Maria Alexander
Philipp Joseph Herzog von Württemberg 1865 - 1939
1917 - 1918 InfGen. Friedrich Sixt von Arnim 1851 - 1936
Chiefs of Staff
Stabschefs
(also supervised civil and administrative affairs)
1914 LtGen. Walter Karl Friedrich
Freiherr von Lüttwitz 1859 - 1942
1914 - 1917 LtGen. Emil Eduard Karl Ilse 1864 - 1943
1917 - 1918 MajGen. Friedrich "Fritz" Karl
von Lossberg 1868 - 1942
Regional Military Administrators
The Etappengebiet was divided into Feldkommandanturen (Brugge, Dendermonde, Gent,
Lokeren, etc)
Civil Administrators
See the Civil Presidents of Oost-Vlaanderen en West-Vlaanderen
ADMINISTRATORS OF THE GOVERNMENT GENERAL
Governors General
Generalgouverneure
1914 Generalfieldmar. Colmar Wilhelm
Leopold Freiherr von der Goltz 1843 - 1916
1914 - 1917 ColGen. Moritz Ferdinand Freiherr von
Bissing 1844 - 1917
1917 - 1918 ColGen. Ludwig Alexander Friedrich
August Philipp Freiherr von Falkenhausen (3) 1844 - 1936
Head of the Administration
Verwaltungschef
(also controlling the Belgian administrations)
1914 - 1917 Maximilian Karl Peter
Joseph von Sandt,
Regierungspräsident of Aachen 1886 - 1918
Head of the Political Section
Chef der Politischen Abteilung
[in charge of international issues resulting from the occupation, of
internal and church affairs and of the so-called "Flamenpolitik" (for
which see Flanders - to be added)]
1915 - 1918 Oscar Freiherr von der
Lancken-Wakenitz, since 1914
representative of the German
Department of Foreign Affairs 1867 - 1939
Head of the Bank Section and Commissioner General for the Banks
Chef der Bankabteilung und Generalkommissar für die Banken
(controlling the activities of the Belgian banks and as such also de
facto in charge of financial affairs)
1914 - 1918 Carl von Lumm 1864 - 1930
Commissioner of the Colonial Office
Kommissar des Kolonialamts
(in charge of colonial affairs)
191. - 1918 Edmund Brückner 1871 - 1935
Regional German Administrators
See here
BELGIAN CENTRAL ADMINISTRATORS
For regional and local administrators see here
A the moment of its departure into exile, the Belgian government appointed Édouard
Michel Levie (1851 - 1939) head of all ongoing administrations in Belgium (4).
In 1918 two assistants - Paul-Émile Janson (1872 - 1944) and Charles Henri Joseph
Wauters (1842 - 1929) were assigned to him.
PERIOD 1914 - 1917
In this period most Belgian Ministries - except those of Foreign Affairs, War and
Colonies, which were abolished - continued to work. They were now headed by their
administrative heads under the authority of German Directors.
RERIOD 1917 - 1918
In 1917 - as a preparation for a possible division of the country into two separate
autonomous or independent polities - Belgium was divided into two administrative
regions :
- Flandern (Vlaanderen) - capital : Brussels - covering :
- the provinces of Antwerpen, Limburg, Oost-Vlaanderen and West-Vlaanderen
- the districts (arrondissementen) Brussel and Leuven of the province of Brabant
- Wallonien (Wallonie) - capital : Namur - covering :
- the provinces of Hainaut, Liège, Luxembourg and Namur,
- the district (arrondissement) Nivelles of the province of Brabant.
Each region was under the supervision of a German office (the Superior Commission
until 1918, then renamed Main Commission) and was administered by its own Flemish
or Walloon ministries, created by the division of the former Belgian ministries. (5)
Chief of the Administration of the Superior Commission/Head Commission for Flanders
Verwaltungschef der Oberkommission/Hauptkommission für Flandern
1917 - 1918 Alexander Schaible 1870 - 1933
Chief of the Administration of the Superior Commission/Main Commission for Wallonia
Verwaltungschef der Oberkommission/Hauptkommission für Wallonien
1917 - 1918 Franz Haniel
ADMINISTRATORS OF RELIEF ORGANIZATIONS
ADMINISTRATORS OF THE COMMISSION FOR RELIEF IN BELGIUM
Alarmed by the suffering of the Belgian civil population after the German invasion,
some US citizens decided to create a relief organization, the American Commission
for Relief in Belgium, which was soon transformed into the Commission for Relief in
Belgium (CRB) under the patronage of the Netherlands, Spain and the US.
After agreements had been made with Allied and German officials (6) the CRB started
its work in close collaboration with the National Committee. At first confined to
the Government General, its activities were later extended to the Etappengebiete
of Belgium and France. (7)
After the US entered war in 1917 all US officials were forced to leave Belgium and
the CRB had to stop its activities in the country. Its tasks were however taken over
by the so-called Spanish-Netherlands Committtee. After the German defeat the CRB
resumed its activities until 1919, when its liquidation started (ended by 1930) (8)
Diplomatic Patrons and Honorary Chairmen
1914 - 1919 -Brand Whitlock, US Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary to Belgium
since 1913 (absent 1917 - 1918) 1869 - 1934
-Walter Hines Page, US Ambassador
Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the
UK since 1913 1855 - 1918
-Henry van Dyke, US Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary to the
Netherlands 1913 - 1917 1852 - 1933
-John Work Garrett, US Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary to the
Netherlands since 1917 1872 - 1942
-Alfonso Merry del Val y Zulueta, Marques
Merry del Val, Spanish Ambassador
Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the
UK since 1913 1864 - 1943
-Rodrigo de Saavedra y Vinent, Marques de
Villalobar, Spanish Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary to Belgium
since 1913 1864 - 1926
-Jonkheer H. De Weerde, Netherlands Envoy
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
to Belgium since 1913, later accredited
to the Belgian Government in exile and
represented in Brussels by :
Minister Resident
191. - 1918 Maurits Willem Raedanck
van Vollenhoven, Heer van
Cleverskerke 1882 - 1976
Honorary Vice Chairmen
1914 - 1919 -Robert Peet Skinner, US Consul General
in London 1866 - 1960
-Hugh Simons Gibson, Secretary at the US
legation in Brussels until 1917 1883 - 1954
-José Congosto, Spanish Consul General
in London
Chairman
1914 - 1920 Herbert Clark Hoover 1874 - 1964
Directors
Directors in London
(possibly incomplete)
The London office coordinated all activities, collected money and goods from over
the world and organized their transport to Rotterdam.
1914 - 1916 Edgar Rickard 1874 - 1951
1916 - 1919 William Babcock Poland 1868 -
Directors in New York
The New York office collected money and goods in the US.
1914 - 1915 Lindon Wallace Bates 1883 - 1915
1915 - 1916 John Beaver White 1874 -
1916 Capt. John F. Lucey
1916 - 1918 William L. Honnold
1918 - 1920 Edgar Rickard s.a.
Directors in Rotterdam
The Rotterdam office organized the transport of collected goods and money to Belgium
1914 Capt. John F. Lucey s.a.
1915 - 1916 Carl A. Young
1916 - 1919 Walter Lyman Brown 1865 -
Directors in Brussels
The Brussels office took care of the distribution of the received goods and money
and was in charge of the relations with the German officials
1914 Dannie N. Heineman 1872 - 1962
-14 - 1915 Capt. John F. Lucey s.a.
1915 Albert Neumann Connett 1859 - 1933
1915 Oscar Terry Crosby 1861 - 1947
1915 Vernon Lyman Kellogg 1867 - 1937
1915 - 1916 William Pabcock Poland s.a.
1916 Vernon Lyman Kellogg (2x)
1916 - 1917 Warren Gregory 1864 - 1927
1917 Prentiss Nathaniel Gray 1884 - 1935
1917 - 1918 none
Belgian Representative in charge
1917 - 1918 Fernand Baetens
1918 - 1919 Frederick Huntington Chatfield 1890 -
Joint Liquidators
1920 - 1930 -William Babcock Poland s.a.
-Edgar Rickard s.a.
ADMINISTRATORS OF THE SPANISH-NETHERLANDS COMMITTEE
In 1917-1918 the work of the CRB was continued by the newly created Comité Hispano
-Hollandais pour 1a Protection du Ravitaillement de la Belgique et du Nord de la
France (Spanish-Netherlands Committee for the Protection of the Supply to Belgium
and Northern France) under the patronage of the Netherlands and Spain.
Patrons
Honorary Patrons
1917 - 1918 -Alfonso XIII, King of Spain 1886 - 1931
-Wilhelmina, Queen of the Netherlands 1880 - 1962
Diplomatic Patrons
1917 - 1918 -Alfonso Merry del Val y Zulueta, Marques
Merry del Val, Spanish Ambassador
Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary to the
UK since 1913 s.a.
-Rodrigo de Saavedra y Vinent, Marques de
Villalobar, Spanish Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary to Belgium
since 1913 s.a.
-José Congosto, Spanish Consul General
in London s.a.
-John Loudon, Netherlands Minister of
Foreign Affairs 1912 - 1918 1866 - 1955
-Jonkheer Herman Adriaan van Karnebeek,
Netherlands Minister of Foreign Affairs
since 1918 1874 - 1942
-Maurits Willem Raedanck van Vollenhoven,
Heer van Cleverskerke, Netherlands
Minister Resident in Brussels (apparentely
no longer as representative of De Weerde) s.a.
Directors
The Spanish Directors were in charge of the Government General, the Dutch in charge
of the Etappengebieten in Belgium and France.
Spanish Director in London
1917 - 1918 José E. Roura
Dutch Director in The Hague
1917 - 1918 Jonkheer E. Michiels van Verduynen
Directors in Brussels
Director of the Spanish section
1917 - 1918 Pedro Saura
Director of the Dutch section
1917 - 1918 G. C. W. Langenbergh
ADMINISTRATORS OF THE BELGIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE
The Comité National de Secours et d'Alimentation/Nationaal Hulp- en Voedingscomité
(National Committee of Relief and Alimentation - in short Nationaal Comité/ Comité
National/National Committee)) was created when several local relief organizations -
established immediately after the German occupation - merged into one organization,
under the protection of the Dutch, Spanish and US envoys to Brussels.
The National Committee also took charge of the distribution of the food and other
relief goods imported by the CRB.
Although formally only concerned with humanitarian assistance the National Committee
- held in high esteem by the Belgians, to whome it soon became a symbol of national
unity - also gained some political influence. It was therefore somewhat distrusted
not only by the Germans (fearing its semi-independent position under international
protection) but also by the Belgian government in exile (fearing that its executive
committee would evolve into a kind of provisional government of occupied Belgium).
After the end of the war the National Committee continued to function until 1919.
As it was the only organization having large stocks of food and other relief goods
it remained very powerful and when Léon Delacroix (1867 - 1929) formed the first
postwar government, he had to include members of the National Committee (Franck as
Minister of Colonies, Harmignie as Minister of Arts and Sciences, Masson as Minister
of War and Ruzette as Minister of Agriculture - s.b. for full names)
Protecting Ministers
(also in charge of the relations between the Committee and the German authorities)
1914 - 1918 -Brand Whitlock, US Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary to Belgium
(until 1917) s.a.
-Rodrigo de Saavedra y Vinent, Marques de
Villalobar, Spanish Envoy Extraordinary
and Minister Plenipotentiary to Belgium s.a.
-Jonkheer H. De Weerde, Netherlands Envoy
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary
to Belgium represented in Brussels by :
Minister Resident
191. - 1918 Maurits Willem Raedanck
van Vollenhoven, Heer van
Cleverskerke s.a.
Members of the National Committee
Chairman
1914 - 1919 Ernest Gaston Joseph Solvay 1838 - 1922
Vice Chairmen
1914 - 1919 -Jean Jadot, Governor of the Socièté
Générale de Belgique 1862 - 1932
-Léon Van Der Rest, Vice Governor of the
National Bank
Other Members
[Memebership at the end of 1918 - (o) = original member in 1914]
-José Allard
-Louis Bertrand
-Ed. Bunge, Vice President of the
Relief and Alimentation Committee
of the province of Antwerpen
-Evence, Baron Coppée (o)
-Jean de Hemptinne, President of the
Relief and Alimentation Committee
of the province of Oost-Vlaanderen 1861 - 1934
-G. de Laveleye, Chairman of the
Board of the Banque de Bruxelles (o)
-Jean Charles Victurien Ghislain,
Prince de Mérode, Comte du Saint
Empire, Grand Marshal of the Royal
Court, President of the Relief and
Alimentation Committee of the province
of Brabant (o) 1864 - 1933
-Emmanuel, Chevalier de Wouters d'Oplinter,
Administrator of the Banque Belge pour
l'Étranger
-Albert, Baron d'Huart, President of
the Relief and Alimentation Committee
of the province of Namur
-Louis Marie François Franck, President
of the Relief and Alimentation Committee
of the province of Antwerpen 1868 - 1937
-Lucien Joseph Émile Francqui, Director
of the Socièté Générale de Belgique and
Chairman of the Board of the Banque
d'Outremer (o) 1863 - 1935
-Auguste, Baron Goffinet, Grand Master
of the Household of former (Mexican)
Empress Charlotte, President of the
Relief and Alimentation Committee of
the province of Luxembourg (o) 1857 - 1927
-Max Hallet, President of the Alimentation
Department of the Committee of the
Brussels Agglomeration 1864 -
-Eugène Hanssens
-Alphonse Félix Auguste Harmignie,
President of the Relief Committee of
the province of Hainaut 1851 - 1931
-Constant Heynderickx, Vice President of
the Relief and Alimentation Committee of
the province of Oost Vlaanderen
-W. Hulse, Administrator of the Compagnie
Mutuelle de Tramways (o)
-... Baron Janssen, Vice President of
the Socièté Générale de Belgique (o)
-Emmanuel Janssen
-Édouard Michel Levie, President of the
Board of the Socièté Nationale des Chemins
de Fer Vicinaux, President of the Board of
the Caisse de Reports et Dépôts s.a.
-Fulgence Paul Benoît Masson, President
of the Alimentation Committee of the
province of Hainaut 1854 - 1942
-Alfred, Baron Orban de Xivry (o) 1857 - 1922
-Clément Peten, Heer van Velm, Vice
President of the Relief and Alimentation
Committee of the province of Limburg 1866 - 1929
-Franz Moses Philippson (o) 1851 - 1929
-F. Portmans, President of the
Relief and Alimentation Committee of
the province of Limburg
-Albert Emmanuel Henri Maria Ghislain,
Baron Ruzette, Vice President of the
Relief and Alimentation Committee of
the province of West-Vlaanderen 1866 - 1929
-Louis Solvay
-Firmin van Bree 1880 - 1960
-E. Van Elewijck
-Paul Van Hoegaerden, President of the
Relief and Alimentation Committee of
the province of Liège 1858 - 1922
-J. Verstraete, President of the Relief
and Alimentation Committee of the
province of West-Vlaanderen
Presidency of the Executive Committee of the National Committee
President
1914 - 1918 Lucien Joseph Émile Francqui (sometimes
styled the "uncrowned king of Belgium") s.a.
Vice Presidents
(at the end of 1918)
-Emmanuel, Chevalier de Wouters
d'Oplinter s.a.
-Emmanuel Janssen s.a.
-Firmin Van Bree s.a.
(1) The frontiers between the Government General, the Etappengebiet of the
4th Army and the Etappengebieten in France were subject to several
changes :
Initially the Government General covered all of Belgium except :
- the Neutral zone of Boechout
- the province of Oost-Vlaanderen (Etappengebiet 4th Army)
- most of the province of West-Vlaanderen (Etappengebiet 4th Army)
It also covered parts of France.
Changes included :
(GG = Government General - Et. = Etappengebiet)
1916 : - the part of the province of West-Vlaanderen till then part of
the GG was transferred to the Et. 4th Army
- part of the province of Hainaut was transferred from the GG to
the Et. 6th Army.
- part of the province of Oost-Vlaanderen was transferred from the
Et. 4th Army to the GG.
- French Maubeuge was transferred from the GG to the Et. 1st and
2nd Armies
1917 : - part of the province of Hainaut - including its capital Mons -
was transferred from the GG to the Et. 1st Army
- part of the province of Luxembourg - including its capital Arlon
- was transferred from the GG to the Et. 5th Army
1918 : - French Fumay and Givet were transferred from the GG to the Et.
1st Army
- part of the province of Hainaut was transferred from the GG to
the Et. 4th Army.
(2) The castle of Boechout was declared neutral as it was (since 1879) the
residence of Princess Maria Charlotte Amélie Auguste Victoire Clémentine
Léopoldine (1840 - 1927), former Empress of Mexico (1864 - 1867) and
sister-in-law to the Austrian Emperor Franz-Josef.
(3) On Nov 10 1918 a Central Soldiers' Council (Zentraler-Soldatenrat) seized
power in Brussels and took over the admiinistration from the Government
General. At first it tried to establish a revolutionary government with
the help of the Belgian Socialists, but as these showed little interest,
the council soon restricted its activities to the saveguarding of law and
order, to the cooperation with the authorities in the distribution of food
and other relief goods and to the return of the German soldiers to their
homeland.
It seems to have ceased to function ca Nov 16.
Chairman of the Central Soldiers' Council
1918 Hugo Freund
(4) As such he was the formal head of the provincial administrations (1914),
the ministries (1914 - 1917) and the municipal administrations (1914 -
1918)
He also supervised the work of the courts and of the National Committee
(1914 - 1918) and also had unformal reunions with parliamentarians who
had not left the country.
(5) The division of the Belgian ministries into Flemish and Walloon ministries
actually already started in 1916, when the Ministry of Sciences and Arts
was divided.
Later the Ministries of Agriculture and of Public Works, of Industry and of
Labour, of the Interior, of Justice and of Marine, Posts and Telegraphs
followed (all in 1917).
The Minstry of Railways - important to German communications - was not
divided and the Ministry of Finances only in 1918, after long hesitations
and even then Germans retained direct control over financial affairs.
The Flemish ministries were headed by Secretaries General (Secretarissen-
Generaal), who were at the same time the heads of the same departments in
the co-existing administration of Independent Flanders established by the
Council of Flanders. (incumbents will be listed under Flanders - to be
added)
As in Wallonia no high officials were found to head the ministries, they
were only headed by subaltern employees.
(6) German offices in charge of the relations with the CRB were :
1914 - 1915 : - the Civil Administration for the general supervision.
- the Political Section for diplomatic affairs
1915 - 1916 : the Political Section alone
1916 - 1918 : the newly created Liaison Office (Vermittlungsstelle)
Head
1916 - 191. Capt. ... Merton
In the Etappengebiet of the 4th Army relations with the CRB were handled
by the offices of the Chief of Staff (s.a.)
(7) In 1915 - 1917 an attempt was made to extend the activities of the CRB
to Poland, but as a consequence of the opposition of the local German
military leaders, it failed.
(8) All remaining stocks were sold by auction. The proceeds of the sale were
then used to create the Universitary Foundation (Universitaire Stichting/
Fondation Universitaire) and the Belgian American Educational Foundation
both concerned with university education and scientific research.
__________________________________________________________________________________
ADMINISTRATORS OF GERMAN OCCUPIED BELGIUM DURING WWII
In 1940 Belgium was once again invaded by German troops and as Hitler had postponed
a decision about the political place of Belgium in the New Europe until after the
end of the war, it remained under "temporary" military rule until 1944 when civil
rule was imposed.
GERMAN ADMINISTRATORS 1940 - 1944
Commanders of the invading Forces
Commander of Army Group A
Oberbefehlshaber Heeresgruppe A
Orerating in the southern sector (also part of France and Luxembourg)
1940 GenCol. Karl Rudolf Gerd von Rundstedt 1875 - 1953
Commander of Army Group B
Oberbefehlshaber Heeresgruppe B
Operating in the northern sector (also part of France and the Netherlands)
1940 GenCol. Fedor von Bock 1880 - 1945
Once the conquest was ended the government of Belgium was entrusted to a military
governor.
Some independent offices were not under his authority and were dependent either of
their head offices in Berlin or of the same offices in Paris.
German Military Commander in Belgium and Northern France
Deutsche Militärbefehlshaber in Belgien und Nord Frankreich
(Subordinated to the High Command of the Armed Forces - OKW )
1940 - 1944 InfGen. Alexander von Falkenhausen (1) 1878 - 1966
Central Administrators
Heads of the Command Staff
Chefs des Kommandostabes
(in charge of military affairs)
1940 - 1943 Col. Bodo Christian Anton Mogens
von Harbou 1880 - 1943
1943 - 1944 ...
Head of the Administrative Staff / Military Administration
Leiter des Verwaltungstabes / Militärverwaltung
(in charge of civilian affairs)
1940 - 1944 SS-Gruppenf. Eggert Hans Reeder 1894 - 1959
Heads of the Administrative Sections
(Leiter der Abteilungen Verwaltung)
(in charge of finances, police and justice, culture, etc)
1940 - 1943 SS-Brigadef. Harry Georg
von Craushaar 1891 - 1970
1943 - 1944 ...
Heads of the Economic Sections
(Leiter der Abteilungen Wirtschaft)
(in charge of agriculture, forestry, banking, foreign trade, etc)
1940 - 1941 Col. Hans Nagel
1941 - 1943 SS-Brigadef. Karl Schlumprecht 1901 - 1970
1943 - 1944 ...
Heads of the Sipo-SD Office - Brussels
(Leiter der Sipo-SD Dienststelle Brüssel) (2)
1940 SS-Sturmbannf. Karl
Hasselbacher 1... - 1940
1940 - 1942 SS-Standartenf. Carl
Constantin Canaris 1906 -
1942 - 1944 SS-Gruppenf. Richard
Jungclaus 1905 - 1945
Regional Military Administrators
The Military Government of Belgium and Northern France was divided into 5 Oberfeld-
kommandanturen :
- Brüssel : covered the Belgian provinces of Antwerpen, Brabant and Limburg
- Charleroi : covered the Belgian provinces of Hainaut and Namur
- Gent : covered the Belgian provinces of Oost- and West Vlaanderen
- Lille : covered Northern France
- Lüttich : covered the Belgian provinces of Liège and Luxembourg.
Oberfeldkommandanten of the Oberfeldkommandantur Brüssel
1940 - 1941 ...
1941 - 1943 LtGen. Günther Freiherr von
Hammerstein-Equord 1877 - 1965
1943 - 1944 LtGen. Friedrich Karst 1893 - 1975
Oberfeldkommandanten of the Oberfeldkommandantur Charleroi
1940 - 1942 MajGen. Otto Gullmann 1887 - 1963
1942 - 1944 ...
Oberfeldkommandanten of the Oberfeldkommandantur Gent
1940 - 1941 Col. Bernhard von Claer 1888 - 1953
1941 ...
1941 - 1942 MajGen. Bernhard von Claer (2x)
1942 - 1944 MajGen. Walter Bruns 1889 - 1967
Oberfeldkommandanten of the Oberfeldkommandantur Lüttich
1940 - 1942 LtGen. Gustav Keim 1876 - 1955
1942 - 1943 LtGen. Georg Bertram 1882 - 1953
1943 - 1944 LtGen. Bernhard von Claer s.a.
INDEPENDENT OFFICIALS
(incomplete)
Heads of the Bureau of the Foreign office in Brussels and Representatives of the
Foreign Office to The Military Commander in Brussels
Leiter des Dienststelle des Auswärtiges Amtes in Brüssel und Vertreter des
Auswärtiges Amtes beim Militärbefehlshaber in Brüssel
1940 - 1943 Werner von Barger 1898 - 1975
1943 - 1944 none
Heads of the Railway Administrations
The administration of the Belgian railways was at first taken over by the military.
In 1942 it was transferred to the Imperial Railway Administration (Reichsbahn), at
that moment united with the Imperial Traffic Ministry.
(all officials subordinated to the head offices in Paris)
Head of the Traffic Direction of the Armed Forces Brussels
Leiter der Wehrmachtverkehrsdirection Brüssel
1940 - 1942 ...
Chairman of the Main Traffic Direction Brussels
Vorsitzende der Hauptverkehrsdirektion Brüssel
1942 - 194. ... Bauer
BELGIAN ADMINISTRATORS 1940 - 1944
Like during WWI the Germans - especially Reeder, the head of the Verwaltung (s.a.)
- once again supported the Flemish Movement.
But unlike in WWI they didn't authorize a separate Flemish administration. (3)
Consequently most Belgian local, regional and central administrations continued to
function during the whole occupation, with these retrictions that they were under
full German supervision and that many original incumbents were gradually replaced
by more reliable ones, mostly members of one of the only two authorized political
organizations :
- Rex (Christe Roi - Christ King)
- the Vlaamsch National Verbond (Flemish National Alliance - VNV) (4)
Secretaries General
The Secretaries General were the traditional administrative heads of the Ministries.
As such the first of them - already in office at the moment of the invasion - can
hardly be seen as collaborators.
Things changed in the course of the following years as most of the first incumbents
were replaced by more cooperative ones, the most important of these being Gerard
Romsee (1901 - 1976), VNV Secretary General of the Interior . (5)
(the ministries of Foreign Affairs and of Defence were abolished)
Presidents of the Committee of the Secretaries General
Voorzitters van het Comité van Secretarissen-Generaal
Présidents du Comité des Secrétaires-Généraux
1940 Alexandre Delmer
1940 - 1941 Antoine Ernst Baron de Brunswyck
1941 Alexandre Delmer (2x)
1941 - 1944 Oscar Plisnier
Secretaries General of Home Affairs and (1940) Public Health
Secretarissen-Generaal van Binnenlandse Zaken en Openbare Gezondheid
Secrétaires-Généraux de l'Intérieur et de la Santé publique
1940 - 1941 Jean Vossen
1941 ... Bajart*
1941 ... Librecht*
1941 - 1944 Gerard Romsée (VNV) s.a.
Secretaries General of Justice
Secretarissen-Generaal van Justitie
Secrétaires-Généraux de la Justice
1940 Jean Hubrecht*
1940 - 1941 Antoine Ernst Baron de Brunswyck s.a.
1941 E. Wauters*
1941 - 1943 Gaston Schuind
1943 - 1944 Robert De Foy
Secretary General of Finances
Secretaris-Generaal van Financiën
Secrétaire-Général des Finances
1940 - 1944 Oscar Plisnier s.a.
Secretaries General of Economic Affairs and Middle Classes
Secretarissen-Generaal van Economische Zaken en van Misddenstand
Secrétaires-Généraux des Affaires Economiques et des Classes moyennes
1940 George Raven*
1940 - 1944 Victor Louis Leemans (VNV) 1901 - 1971
Secretaries General of Public Works
Secretarissen-Generaal van Openbare Werken
Secrétaires-Généraux des Travaux publics
1940 - 1941 Alexandre Delmer s.a.
1941 - 1942 ... De Cock
1942 - 1944 ... De Meyer
Secretaries General of Agriculture and (1940) Supply
Secretarissen-Generaal van Landbouw en Bevoorraading
Secrétaires-Généraux de l'Agriculture et du Ravitaillement
1940 ... Van Orshoven*
1940 - 1944 Emiel De Winter
Secretaries General of Communications
Secretarissen-Generaal van Verkeerswezen
Secrétaires-Généraux des Communications
1940 G. Van Overstraeten*
1940 - 1941 E. Castriau
1941 - 1944 Gaston Claeys
Secretaries General of Labour and Social Security
Secretarissen-Generaal van Arbeid en Sociale Voorzorg
Secrétaires-Généraux du Travail et de la Sécurité sociale
1940 - 1942 Carl Verwilghen
1942 ... De Voghel
1942 ... Vervaeck
1942 - 1943 ... Bisqueret
1943 - 1944 ... Olbrachts
1944 ... Nys
Secretary General of Poblic Health and Supply
Secretaris-Generaal van Openbare Gezondheid en Bevoorrading
Secrétaire-Général de la Santé publique et du Ravitaillement
1940 Raymond Delhaye*
1940 : divided between the Interior (Public Health) and Agriculture (Supply)
Secretary General of Public Instruction
Secretaris-Generaal van Openbaar Onderwijs
Secrétaire-Général de l'Instruction publique
1940 - 1944 M. Nyns
Secretaries General of the Colonies
Secretarissen-Generaal van Koloniën
Secrétaires-Géneraux des Colonies
(The Secretaries General of the Colonies were only concerned with colonial affairs
in Belgium itself : the payment of pensions and allocations to colonial agents in
Belgium, the payment of bills, etc. Actual management of the colonies was handled
by the Minister of the Colonies in exile)
1940 M. Van Hecke*
1940 - 1941 E. De Jonghe*
1941 - 1943 M. Van Hecke* (2x)
1943 - 1944 M. Van den Abeele* (prevented
the abolition of the Ministry
of Colonies by the Germans)
GERMAN AND "BELGIAN" ADMINISTRATORS 1944 - 1945
After the allied landing in Normandy, the military administration was replaced by
a civilian (Jul 1944), a prelude to a complete integration into the German Empire.
Some months later (Dec 1944) Belgium was divided into three parts :
- the District of Brussels : covering the city of Brussels and remaining under the
direct authority of the German Reichskommissar (s.b.)
- the Reichsgau Flandern - capital Antwerpen - covering :
- the provinces of Antwerpen, Limburg, Oost-Vlaanderen and West-Vlaanderen
- the districts (arronissementen) of Brussel (except the town of Brussels) and of
Leuven of the province of Brabant.
- the Reichsgau Wallonien - capital Liège - covering :
- the provinces of Hainaut, Liège, Luxembourg and Namur
- the district (arrondissement) of Nivelles of the province of Brabant.
Except for a very brief period in Dec 1944-Jan 1945 - when parts of the provinces
of Liège and Luxembourg were re-occupied during the so-called Battle of the Bulge/
Von Rundstedt Offenive - the listed administrations existed on paper only, Belgium
having been liberated in Sep 1944. (6)
GERMAN ADMINISTRATORS
Imperial Commissioner of Belgium and Northern France
Reichskommissar Belgien-Nord Frankreich
1944 - 1945 Josef Grohé, also NSDAP Gauleiter
of Köln-Aachen 1902 - 1988
Commanders of the Armed Forces in Belgium and Northern France
Wehrmachtsbefehlshaber Belgien-Nord Frankreich
1944 InfGen. Martin Grase 1891 - 1963
1944 - 194. The HSSPF s.b.
Higher SS and Police Leaders in Belgium and Northern France
Höhere SS und Polizeiführer Belgien-Nord Frankreich (HSSPF)
The office of HSSPF was created out of the pre-existing Sipo-SD Dienststelle(s.a.)
1944 SS-Gruppenf. Richard Jungclaus s.a.
1944 - 1945 SS-Obergruppenf. Friedrich Jeckeln, 1895 - 1946
also HSSPF of Ostland and therefore
represented by :
1944 - 1945 SS-Brigadef. Christoph
Diehm 1892 -
Commanders of the German troops in Eastern Belgium during the Battle of the Bulge
(Subordinated to the Commander-in-Chief West)
Commander of the 5th Armoured Army
Befehlshaber der 5. Panzer Armee
(operating in the southern part of Liège and in Luxembourg)
1944 - 1945 LtGen. Hasso Eccard Freiherr von
Manteuffel 1897 - 1978
Commander of the 6th Armoured Army
Befehlshaber der 6. Panzer Armee
(operating in Liège)
1944 - 1945 SS-Oberstgruppenf. Josef "Sepp" Dietrich 1892 - 1966
HEADS OF THE FLEMISH AND WALLOON REICHSGAUE
(in exile in Germany)
Landleader of the Flemish People - Head of the Flemish Liberation Committee
Landsleider van het Vlaamsche Volk - Hoofd van het Vlaamsche Bevrijdingscomité
(Landsleiter des Flämischen Volkes - Leiter des Flämischen Befreiungskomitees)
1944 - 1945 SS-Obersturmbannf. Jef Van de Wiele,
Landsleider of DeVlag (see Flanders) 1902 - 1979
Leader of the Walloon People
Chef du Peuple Wallon
(Leiter der Wallonischen Volksgruppe)
1944 - 1945 SS-Obersturmbannf. Léon Degrelle,
Leader of Rex, also briefly entrusted
with the civil administration of the
Belgian areas occupied by the German
forces during the Battle of the Bulge 1906 - 1994
LEADERS OF THE RESISTANCE - ALLIED REPRESENTATIVES
LEADERS OF THE RESISTANCE
The first resistance movements were created nearly immediately after the defeat in
1940. Despite sounding names - the Black Hand, the Black Legion, the White Phalanx,
Victory and Freedom, etc - many of them only had a minor and/or local importance.
Major exceptions were the:
- Belgian National Movement
- Group G
- Independence Front
- Liberation Army of Belgium
- National Royalist Movement
- Secret Army
- White Brigade
Originally the relations berween the Belgian Government in exile and the resistance
movements - especially with the important Secret Army (s.b.) - seem to have been
tense.
And it was only after this movement had given up its support to King Leopold III,
that an agreement could be reached :
- the Secret Army was recognized as the military branch of the government in exile
in Belgium,
- the Independence Front was (unformally) recognized as the leading civil movement.
(7)
Head of the 2nd Direction of the Ministry of Defence in exile
(in charge of the relations with the Secret Army)
1942 - 1944 Col. Jean Marissal
Head of the State Security
(Formally under the Ministry of Justice in exile but de facto under Prime Minister
Pierlot - In charge of the relations with all other movements)
194. - 1944 Fernand Lepage*
In 1942 two failed attempts were made to regroup different movements :
- Mathieu François Camille Joset (1879 - 1958), the leader of the Belgian National
Movement tried to create a Patriotic Front regrouping his own organization, the
National Royalist Movement, the Secret Army and some other groups like the Black
Legion. The attempt ended when he was arrested.
- Troops of the Secret Army, of the National Royalist Movement and of other groups
united briefly to form the Belgian Free Corps (Belgisch Vrijkorps - Corps Franc
Belge). Its existence ended in 1943, when its leader was arrested.
Commanders of the Belgian Free Corps
1942 - 1943 Cmdt. Charles Claser, Leader
of the Secret Army, arrested 1... - 1944
1942 - 1943 Col. ... Siron, arrested 1... - 1943
A new attempt in 1944 had more results as the Belgian National Movement, the Group
G, the Independence Front, the Liberation Army of Belgium and the Secret Army agreed
to coordinate their activities.
Chairman of the National Coordination Committee
Voorzitter van het National Coördinatie Comité
Président du Comité national de Coordination
1944 Pierre Charles Jean Joseph Clerdent,
Leader of the Liberation Army of
Belgiumn 1909 -
Leaders of the Belgian National Movement
The Belgian National Mouvement [Belgische Nationale Beweging - Mouvement National
Belge (MNB/BNB)] was founded in 1940.
This ultraconservative movement opearted in Flanders (Antwerpen, Limburg) as well
as in Wallonia (Luxembourg).
1940 - 1942 Aimé Dandoy, arrested 1908 - 194.
1942 Mathieu François Camille Joset,
de facto leader since 1940, arrested s.a.
1942 - 1944 Raymond Defonseca
Leaders (Coordinators) of Group G
Group G [Groupe G - Groep G, until 1943 known as Group Gérard and General Sabotage
Group] was founded in 1941.
This political neutrally movement originated in Brussels, but later it extended its
activities to Flanders (Antwerpen) and Wallonia (Liàge, Namur)
1941 - 1944 Jean Burgers 1917 - 1944
1944 Robert Leclerq
Leaders of the Independence Front
Although also including non-communist organizations and members, the Independence
Front [Front de l'Indépendance - Onafhankelijkheidsfront (FI/OF)], founded in 1941
was largely dominated by the Belgian Communist Party.
The Front operated in the whole country and was - as already mentioned - recognized
as the leading civilian resistance organization in 1943.
Secretaries of the Belgian Communist Party
The Belgian Communist Party [Parti Communiste Belge (PCB)] only started resistance
after the German invasion of the USSR in 1941. Its Politburo then ceased to function
and actual leadership of the party then passed to a secretariat of four members.
1941 - 1944 -Constant Colin (until apr 1943
when arrested) 1903 - 1945
-Jef Van Extergem, Secretary of the
Flemish Communist Party (8),
(until apr 1943 when arrested) 1898 - 1945
-Joseph Leemans (until jul 1943
when arrested) 1901 - 1976
-Xavier Relecom "Renard, etc"
(until jul 1943 when arrested) 1900 - 1977
-Andrei Berei "Pépé, etc",
Representative of Komintern in
Brussels (since may 1943) 1900 - 1979
-Edgar Lalmand "Maréchal 02, etc"
Secretary of the Flemish Communist
Party (since may 1943) 1894 - 1965
-Raymond Dispy (since aug 1943) 1903 - 1980
-Jean Terfve "Radoux" (since aug 1943) 1907 - 1978
Leaders of the Independence Front
Members of the National Committee
(Highest organ of the Front)
1941 - 1944 -René De Cooman (Socialist)
-Marcel Grégoire (Catholic)
-Norbert Hougardy (Liberal)
-Jean Terfve (Communist) s.a.
Members of the National Secretariat
(Managed daily affairs)
1941 - 1944 -Fernand Sylvain Demany (Secretary General) 1904 - 1977
-Norbert Hougardy s.a.
-Jean Terfve s.a.
Military Leaders of the Independence Front
Commanders of the Belgian Army of the Partisans - Armed Partisans
The Belgian Army of the Partisans - Armed Partisans [Armée belge des Partisans -
Partisans Armés (ABP-PA)/Belgisch Partizanen Leger - Gewapende Partizanen (BPL/GP)]
- was formally only the armed branch of the BCP, not of the Front.
1941 - 1943 Joseph Leemans s.a.
1943 Pierre Joye
1943 - 1944 Jean Terfve s.a.
1944 Henri Buch 1910 -
1944 Raymond Dispy s.a.
Commander of the Patriotic Militias
The Patriotic Militias (Milices patriotiques - Patriottische Milities) - the armed
branch of the Front - were only establshed in 1944.
1944 ...
Leader of the Liberation Army of Belgium
The catholic Liberation Army of Belgium (Armée de Libération de Belgique - (AL) was
founded in 1940. It operated mainly in the province of Liège.
1940 - 1944 Pierre Charles Jean Joseph Clerdent,
in 1944 also president of the National
Coordination Committee s.a.
Leaders of the National Royalist Movement
The National Royalist Movement [Nationaal Koningsgezinde Beweging - Mouvement
National Royaliste (MNB/NKB)] was founded by members of Rex opposed to collaboration
with the Germans.
They nevertheless remained ultraconservative and advocated an authoritarian kingdom
to be headed by King Leopold III. It later also gained some support among Catholics,
the military and the nobility.
The movement operated mainly in Flanders (Antwerpen, Brabant and Oost-Vlaanderen).
1940 - 1942 Eugène Mertens de Wilmars,
arrested
1942 - 1944 LtGen. Ernest Ghislain Graff 1882 - 1976
Leaders of the Secret Army
In 1941 three groups formed in 1940 by members of the defeated Belgian troops - the
Belgian Legion (Comm.: Cmdt. Charles Claser - s.a.), the Phalanx (Comm.: Xavier,
Comte de Grunne 1... - 1944) and the Reconstructed Belgian Army (Comm.: Col. Robert
Lenz)- united under the name Belgian Legion (Belgisch Legioen - Légion belge).
The organization operated in the whole country and as mentioned, was recognized as
the military branch of the Belgian government in exile in Belgium in 1943. It then
changed its name into Army of Belgium [Armée de Belgique - Leger van België (AB/LB)].
To avoid a confusion with the returning Belgian Army in exile it adopted the name
Secret Army [Armée secrète/Geheim Leger (AS/GL)] in 1944.
Commanders of the Belgian Legion
1941 - 1942 Cmdt. Charles Claser, arrested s.a.
0942 - 1943 Col. Jules Bastin 1889 - 1944
Commanders of the Army of Belgium
1943 - 1943 Col. Jules Bastin s.a.
1943 - 1944 Col Ivan Gérard
1944 LtGen. Jules Joseph Pire "Pygmalion" 1878 - 1953
Commander of the Secret Army
1944 LtGen. Jules Joseph Pire s.a.
Leaders of the White Brigade
The liberal White Brigade - renamed White Brigade-Fidelio (Witte Brigade - Fidelio)
in 1944 - was founded in 1940. It operated mainly in the province of Antwerpen, but
also extended its activities to other areas (Oost-Vlaanderen,...).
It seems to have been the only of the major movements having a Flemish leadership,
the others being Francophone or formally bilingual (in practice also Francophone).
It was one of the best known movements and "Witten" (Whites) soon became the name
given to all resistance movements (as opposed to "Zwarten" - Blacks, the name given
to collaborating movements)
1940 - 1944 Lt. Marcel Louette, arrested 1902 - 1978
1944 ...
ALLIED REPRESENTATIVES
At the Liberation in 1944, a SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force)
Mission was sent to Belgium to serve as a liason office between the headquarters,
the allied forces operating in Belgium and the Belgian authorities and to administer
the country in co-operation with these Belgian authorities until the country was
considered "save".
Head of the SHAEF Mission - Belgium
1944 - 1945 MajGen. Sir George Watkin Eben
James Erskine (UK), in 1945
also Head of the SHAEF Mission
- Luxembourg (9) 1899 - 1965
Belgian Delegate to the SHAEF Mission - Belgium
1944 - 1945 LtGen. Paul Marie Joseph Raymond
Tschoffen 1878 - 1961
Head of the Civil Affairs Section
1944 - 194. Col. John Ford Bygott 1895 -
(1) While still being Militärbefehlshaber of the Netherlands (until May 29),
von Falkenhausen assumed command of the Belgian provinces of Antwerpen,
Brabant, Hainaut and Limburg on May 20. On May 30 he assumed command of
all of Belgium. Northern France was added to his command on Jun 15 as
was Luxembourg from Jun 26 to Aug 07. The so-called Eastern Cantons were
detached from it on Jun 01.
[Northern France was added to the Belgian command for :
- economical reasons : the industrial zones of Hainaut and of the Nord
formed a whole,
- military reasons : the shores of both areas were at a same distance
of the UK, justifing a single command
- political reasons : the area could be used to exert pressure on Vichy
France (fearing to lose it) and on the Flemish
nationalists in Belgium (hoping to reincorporate
French Flanders, once a part of the County of
Flanders)]
(2) The Sipo-SD (Sicherheitspolizei-Sicherheisdienst) Office was a branch of
the RSHA (Reichssicherheitshauptamt) of the SS.
It was in charge of security, intelligence, Jewish affairs, etc. Formally
subordinated to the military government, it actually acted independently,
being in fact dependent of the SS commander in Paris until 1941.
(3) This was a consequence of the fact that - as mentioned - Hitler had postponed
a final decision about the future of Belgium until after the war. [At the
same time he however instructed the occupation authorities to conduct once
again a very active Flamenpolitik. (for which see Flanders - to be added)]
Consequently an attempt to create a Reichgau Flandern in Jun 1940 - to be
headed by SS-Gruppenf. Karl Kaufmann, Reichsstatthalter and Gauleiter of
Hamburg (1900 - 1969) - was immediately stopped by the military.
(4) The VNV was the most influential of the two and this resulted in a bizarre
situation whereby a Flemish narionalist party - that had always stand for
the end of Belgium - now actually became a kind of guardian of its unity.
(For more on the history of this party see Flanders - to be added)
In 1941 both parties signed a cooperation agreement, whereby they also
divided the country between them :
- Rex would only operate in Wallonia and Brussels,
- the VNV would only operate in Flanders and Brussels and also be allowed
to establish organizations for the Flemings living in Wallonia (another
evidence of its supremacy was the fact that - unlike Rex, which Reeder
intensely disliked - it was allowed to appoint Secretaries General).
(5) The legal position of the Secretaries General during the war was a problem.
Although a Belgian urgency law of May 1940 had authorized them to continue
in office, it had not well defined their powers : were they only executive
officers managing affairs based on laws existing before the occupation or
did they have the right to issue new rules (what most did)) ?
Although the Court of Cassation in 1942 more or less decided in favour of
the second option - it ruled that in view of the execeptional situation,
the secretaries general (formally only executive officers) were empowered
to perform legislative acts on condition that these didn't endanger public
order or result in fundamental changes - the Belgian government resolved
the problem in 1944 by simply abolishing nearly all decisions made by the
war time Secretaries General...
(6) Only a small German pocket survived for nearly two months at Knokke on the
Belgian coast.
Commander of the 64th Infanterie Division
1944 MajGen. Knut Eberding 1895 - 1978
(7) The Belgian government in exile was represented since 1942 in Belgium by a
Political Committee of the Resistance (Comité politique de la Résistance -
Politiek Comité van het Verzet), which seems not to have taken leadership
of the resistance movements, but rather to have been a liaison office
bewteen the government and officials (magistrates, secretaries general,
etc) and other influential persons (bankers, industrials, etc) in Belgium.
The Committee was chaired by Charles Marie Joseph de Visscher (1884 - 1973)
but its most influential member seems to have been Walter Jean Ganshof van
der Meersch (1900 - 1993), since 1943 High Commissioner for State Security
(and after the Liberation in charge of the punishment of collaborators)
(8) The Belgian Communist Party - founded in 1921 - was originally a nearly
exclusive Walloon organization.
In an attempt to extend communist influence in Flanders a separate Flemish
Communist Party (Vlaamsche Kommunistische Partij) was created in 1937 as a
separate member of the Communist International.
To gain popular support the party was authorized to defend Flemish demands
and to use Flemish symbols, like the Lion Flag.
After the Liberation it survived until 1945, when the PCB once again also
assumed full responsability for Flanders.
(9) Until the arrival of the Erskine on Sep 10, SHAEF authority in Belgium was
represented by the commanders of the armies operating in Belgium and their
Civil Affairs sections :
- Northern Zone (more or less Brussels and Flanders)
- The British 21th Army Group with :
- the British 2nd Army (in the East)
- the Canadian 1st Army (in the West)
- Southern Zone (more or less Wallonia, also including the Grand Duchy)
- The US 12th Army Group with :
- the 9th US Army
- the 1st US Army (also in The Grand Duchy)
(More information will be found under ALLIED ADMINISTRATIONS DURING WWII -
to be added)