JOHNSTON, KINGMAN REEF AND PALMYRA
See also US GUANO ISLANDS (to be added)

US DEPENDENCIES OF JOHNSTON, KINGMAN REEF AND PALMYRA
Johnston Atoll was discovered and named in 1807 by the British Captain Charles J.
Johnston. 
It was rediscovered - together with the neighbouring Sand Atoll - by the US Captain
William H. Parker who toke possession of it in his personal name in 1857, but later
transferred it to the Pacific Guano Company. (1)
The Company now mined the atoll for guano until 1892 when the British toke over and
started preparations for the establishment of a cable station.
They however soon withdrew and in 1898 the atoll was formally annexed to the US as
being part of Hawaii. (2) 
In 1926, after an attempt to resume guano mining had failled, the atoll was made a
federal bird refuge and placed under the control of the Department of Agriculture.

Kingman Reef was discovered - or possibly rediscovered - in 1853 by the US Captain
W. E. Kingman after who it was named.
In 1859 the United States Guano Company toke possession of the reef, but apparently
never started mining it. (1)
The reef was now forgotten until 1922, when the Palmyra Copra Company annexed it on
behalf of the US and made it a fishing base.

Palmyra Atoll was discovered by Sawle, Captain of the US ship Palmyra in 1802.
In 1859 it was claimed both by the American Guano Company and by the United States
Guano Company, but the following year it was awarded to the second company (1) which
however never started mining for guano.
In the meanwhile the atoll had been occupied by colonists from Hawaii and in 1862
it was formally annexed to the Kingdom of Hawaii.(3)  
In 1898, as part of this country, Palmyra was annexed to the U.S.(4)

In 1934 Johnston, Kingman Reef and Palmyra were placed under the Department of the
Navy (5), which in the course of the following years established some
military facilities both on Johnston and Palmyra. Some years later, in 1941, all
three also became Naval Defensive Areas closed to all but those permitted to enter
by the Navy. 
Both Johnston and Palmyra served as military bases during WWII.

(1) In accordance with the Guano Act of 1856 - which provided that whenever any
    citizen of the US discovered a deposit of guano on any island, rock or key,
    not within the lawful jurisdiction of any other government, toke peaceable
    possession of it and occupied the island, rock or key, it appertained to the 
    US - the US government recognized the claims :

    - of the Pacific Guano Company on Johnston in 1859. 
    - of the United States Guano Company on Kingman Reef and on Palmyra in 1860.

    The awarding of Johnston to the Pacific Guano Company was contested by the
    heirs of Parker until 1873. 

(2) The annexation of Johnston as part of Hawaii was based on an Hawaiian
    proclamation of annexation of the atoll made in 1858.

(3) From now on the atoll was owned by Hawaiian citizens :

    1866 - 1885   Kalama Wilkinson                           1... - 1885   
    1885          the three heirs of Mrs Wilkinson. 

    After this the possession was divided :

    - two of the heirs immediately transferred their rights to a certain Wilcox
      who, in turn, transferred them to the Pacific Navigation Company who made 
      an attempt to colonize the atoll in 1885 - 1886.
      Afterwards, by a series of agreements, signed between 1888 and 1911, the 
      Company transferred its interests to Henry Ernest Cooper (1857 - 1929),
      former chairman of the Hawaiian Citizen's Committee of Public Safety of
      1893.  
    - the third heir transferred his rights to a Mr. Ringer whose children in
      turn also transferred their rights to Henry Ernest Cooper (s.a.) in 1912
      and who was now in possession of the whole atoll.

    In 1922 Cooper sold the whole atoll except two minor islets to Leslie and
    Ellen Fullard-Leo, who established the Palmyra Copra Company to exploite it.
    The heirs of both parties continued as proprietors afterwards, except for a
    period of Navy administration during WWII. 

(4) In the period preceding the formal annexation of the atoll by the US, the UK
    started to show some interest for the atoll as part of the "Guano Empire" of
    John T. Arundel & Co and in 1889 the British had even formally annexed it.
    In order to end all further British attempts or contestations, a second act
    of annexation of Palmyra was made in 1911.
    
    In 1898 the US also annexed - as part of Hawaii - the French Frigates Shoals
    Atoll.
    This atoll had been claimed in 1859 by J. M. Brooke, an US citizen, but the
    US government did not recognized this claim..
    Later the atoll became a disputed territory between the Kingdom of Hawaii and
    the US.  

(5) Johnston also came under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior,
    which toke charge of the bird refuge.


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