Pigments and Paints:

A Brief Survey and Set of Instructions

On Making and Identifying Period Illumination Paints

By Merouda Pendray (mka Elyse C. Boucher)

The period of time and range of locations studied by members of the Society for Creative Anachronism is vast; many changes in fashion and knowledge occur over the course of 1000 or more years. This class is intended to cover things that are generally true across all this time and in all these locations. Thus, if you have questions about specific times and specific places, please refer to the bibliography for recommended readings that will provide greater detail. Pigments that are unique to a location or time are not discussed here.

Paint is made generally from two things: a coloring agent, called a pigment, and a glue, called a binder. Pigments are pretty much pigments, no matter what the type of paint--yellow ochre is yellow ochre is yellow ochre. The difference in paints comes from the binder. Binders for period book illumination include size, casein, egg yolk, mixed white and yolk, cherry tree sap, and other glues. The most typically used binders are, however, gum Arabic and glair. The different binders are what make paints different.

All of the abovementioned binders are aqueous; that is, they can be dissolved and thinned in water, although some paints, notably egg yolk tempera and casein, will become waterproof with the passage of time. Other paints, like glair and the gum Arabic-based watercolor and gouache, remain vulnerable to water for years, although passage of several years does create some resistance to water. The popularity of a particular binder in any given time and place during period is dependant on things like current fashion and availability, with any of the above mentioned binders being possibly used by anyone at any time. 

Again, glair and gum Arabic were the most frequently used binders in period book illumination. Period pigments could vary widely at any given point, but the following list constitutes things that were generally used from Pliny in ancient Rome to Hilliard in Jacobean London. For the purpose of this class, pigments are broken into 4 loose categories: mineral pigments, which are, essentially, ground rocks; earth pigments, which are ground clays; dye pigments, which are created from plant/animal products put through dye processes; and alchemist pigments, consisting of those pigments created through some sort of chemical process, such as deliberate corrosion or burning.

Blue: Far and away the best blues came from a variety of minerals. Lapis Lazuli, sometimes known as Virgin Blue because of its frequent use to color the Virgin's robe in Christian painting, was the most expensive, most beautiful of all blues. The process of grinding and separating Lapis into a number of grades of blue was complicated and time consuming. No matter what you have heard about purple, in period painting, Lapis blue was the most expensive color. Azurite, another mineral blue, produced almost the same color as the best Lapis but could not be finely ground--as the azurite is ground smaller, the color becomes pale. Getting azurite to stick to the page required quite a lot of binder, which, in and of itself, can be a real problem. Smalt, a later period blue, comes from ground cobalt glass, and was used as an inexpensive substitute for both Azurite and Lapis. Its gray undertone usually distinguishes it from the mineral blues. There are directions for alchemist blue pigments: copper-based blues made by suspending copper plates above ammonia, but the color is quite unstable and was not popular for use in the best books. 

A huge variety of plant blues were also used in period. Because the use of plant-based dye pigments is so varied based on time and place, this class will limit itself to a discussion of those most likely to be used just about anywhere and anytime in pre-1600 book painting. Indigo, woad, and turnsole (called also folium) were the most common plant blue pigments. The making of these pigments is an art unto itself, especially since mistakes could give a different that desired color, particularly in the case of turnsole and brazilwood. Generally speaking, the making of plant pigments followed dyer's processes: boil plant material, add a mordant, and dye a cloth or an inert white pigment. However, sometimes the dye was allowed to dry in the pot and the dried-out residue scraped out and used, either by moistening the residue with a brush or by adding the residue to a binder, the binder dissolving and being colored by said crystals.

Red: There were basically three preferred reds: Cinnabar is a mineral red. Fairly early in the history of man, someone figured out how to manufacture cinnabar, resulting not only in a greater availability of this red, but also a better color. Manufactured cinnabar is known as vermilion. Red Lead is roasted white lead, and produces a red that is almost orange. Carmine color can be produced by a variety of plants put through a variety of processes. In late period, the color might be called cochineal, referring to its origin from an insect native to Mexico. Carmine, as a color family, results from a variety of plants or insects, and might be manufactured in many ways. The process could be so complex that Cennini suggests that artists not waste their time on attempting to manufacture the color, saying that one was better off just purchasing carmine clothlets.

Earth reds came in a wide variety and might be described specifically (Sinopia--earth red originating near Sinope) or describe simply as "Red Ochre." Burnt Ochre might refer to red ochre, or it might refer to roasted yellow ochre. In any event, medieval nomenclature for red earths is pretty confusing. Essentially, most modern red earths were probably used in period. Red earths could range in color from a rose (terre rosa) to a dark purple (caput mortuum). As the name implies, earth pigments are basically ground up clay. 

Hematite, a mineral, when ground as a pigment, is generally considered a red, but the color is actually maroon. 

Pinks or roses might be mixtures of red and white but might also be dyes. Pink might be obtained from turnsole, brazilwood, madder, and other dye pigments.

Greens: Malachite is the only mineral green typically in the period palate. Like its relative, azurite, it must be ground coarsely to get the best green. Terre Verte is an unspecified green earth; any green earth will do, and there is great a variety of hues in this category. Terre Verte was most usually used for underpainting flesh. Sap Green and Iris Green were the two most common plant greens, both made by extracting the plant juices and adding alum. They are identical in appearance. Verdigris, and its relatives Salt Green and Soap Green, was created by suspending copper plates above vinegar or urine or wine until corrosion formed, then scrapping the corrosion off. However, the most common method of making green was by mixing yellow and blue.

Yellow: Orpiment is the most common mineral yellow. It is, however, probably the most dangerous of pigments. Orpiment varies from a very bright yellow to, most commonly, a bright yellow hinting towards orange. The most prized plant yellow comes from saffron; the saffron would simply be placed into glair and the color from the stamens would suffuse through the binder. It was a very unstable color, but considered extremely beautiful while it lasted. Berry yellow, like sap green, was made from the juice of buckthorn berries and alum. Ripe buckthorn berries produced green: unripe, yellow. Almost any yellow earth was called yellow ochre. Lead Yellow, like red lead, was made by roasting white lead.

Browns: In illumination, brown is an infrequently used color until late in period, when Renaissance realism demanded brown for landscapes and so forth. Generally, browns were created by mixing. Raw Sienna, Burnt Sienna, Raw Umber, Burnt Umber, Van Dyke Brown and most other brown earths don't see significant use in painting of any sort until late period. Sepia, a secretion of the cuttlefish, might be used in drawing but was not frequent as a paint.

Purples: Like brown, purple tends to be a minor color in illumination. Period purples generally come from mixtures of red and blue, but turnsole, brazilwood, madder, and kermes could be used to make purples if mordanted correctly. The purplish earth reds can fall into this category. In early period, whelk shells (Tyrian Purple) would be used to make a dye pigment. Medieval era people tended to prefer a bluish violet, judging by their color choices, and so keep in mind that what you think of when you recall purple is different than the dark blue touched with red that usually appears in medieval manuscripts.

Blacks: Most blacks resulted from some sort of burning. Smoke or Lampblack is created when something cold is held in a flame. Vine Black is charcoal made from grapevines. Bone Black is charcoal made from bones. Any nondescript charcoal may also have been ground and made into paint. Ferro-gallic ink might be used as a black in some instances, but it's unusual. Last, Black Lead would be used in late period to make some paints, but its principle use was in drawing. "Black Lead," of course, is the mineral in our pencils--graphite. Period treatises generally describe it as a soft black stone that may be cut with a knife.

Whites: By far, the favorite white on the medieval palette was White Lead, made by suspending plates of lead above vinegar or urine and scraping off the resulting corrosion. However, some circumstances demanded the use of an inert white pigment. At those times, Bone White, Shell White, Marble Dust, Slaked Plaster might be used. These were considered unsatisfactory, however, and so they were generally used only if lead white absolutely could not be used. Bone White and Shell white were usually made by burning bones or egg shells, marble dust was made by grinding marble, and slaked plaster was made by a complicated process of adding plaster to water, stirring, and changing the water over the course of about 40 days.

Metals: Gold is the most used metal in illumination; silver also appears in books, and tin is occasionally employed, with a color wash, to imitate other metals. This class does cover gilding with metal. However, gold or silver leaf could be ground and used as a pigment, although to do so required some special processes. In addition, medieval illuminators had an amazing plethora of receipts for making mosaic gold and mosaic silver--imitation gold or imitation silver pigments.

Some special notes: Vermilion sometimes turns black for no accountable reason; the mercury in cinnabar/vermilion can destroy gilding and requires special disposal procedures. Call your local waste management company to find out what they are in your area. Verdigris, White Lead, and Orpiment can not be used together. The chemical reaction of these paints will destroy the artwork. Orpiment is arsenic based and must be handled with care. In general, the following safety precautions should be used with dry pigments, especially those that are lead, mercury, arsenic, copper, or other metal based pigments. 1. Never eat, drink, smoke, or in any way do any thing that would cause you to ingest the pigments. 2. Wear a dusk mask and eye protection. 3. Wear latex gloves and long sleeves, particularly if you have any cuts or other skin breaks. 4. Add water or a mixture of water and diluted binder to pigments as soon as possible--pigments are most able to gain airborne entrance to your system when they are dry. 5. Prepare paints in a controlled enviorment, not in the windy outdoors. That said, don't be afraid to make your paints from pigments. Just remember to use common sense.

Most glue binders were made by boiling an animal product until the binding agent was extracted from the animal product. This class will not cover that process.

Egg Yolk Binder: Separate the white and the yolk of an egg. Gently wash the yolk to remove any excess egg white; this is most easily done by rolling the intact yolk on to a cloth or paper towel. Grasp the yolk sac and hold it over a small bowel. Puncture the sac with a knife, fork, pin, et cetera, allowing the yolk to drain into the bowl and out of the sac. Mix an equal amount of water into the yolk. The binder is now ready. 

Egg yolk alone is minimally used in books. The resulting paint is soft and doesn't stand up well to book usage. However, it is used in books.

Glair: Separate an egg and place the white into a deep bowl. In period, the scribe would use a sponge to soak up and squeeze out the white or a frayed stick to beat the white. In this modern day, you can use an electric or hand beater or a whisk. Beat the white until it is stiff--like white, foamy mountains, if you are not a cook. Beat the white until it can be beat no more. Cover the bowl and let it sit overnight. In the morning, the bowl will contain some clear liquid and possibly some crusty junk. Toss the crusty stuff, and pour the liquid into a small bottle. This liquid is glair, and the binder can be used right away, although it has greater sticking power if you allow it to age.

Mixed Egg: Mix egg yolk and glair, or mixed gum Arabic and egg yolk. I find it easier to create this binder by mixing egg yolk into paint I've already made, and mixing up only the amount I will use that day.

Gum Arabic: Modernly, this is the product of the acacia tree, but in period, it was that and any other gum that made paint stick. Gum Arabic solution can be bought ready-made. Unprepared gum Arabic may be purchased as well. It comes in large, clear crystals. Grind the crystals as finely as you can. Place the gum Arabic powder in water and heat it gently--in a double boiler, for instance--until the powder dissolves. Add a bit of honey or sugar to the solution and allow it to dissolve. Allow the solution to cool. Your binder is now ready.

Some Special Notes: By late period, gum Arabic had become the binder of choice for illumination. Gum Arabic makes blue pigments bluer and egg yolk makes red pigments more lustrous. Mixed egg yolk and gum Arabic increases gum Arabic's water resistance and generally improves the appearance of most commercial gouaches. Although we tend to think of illumination as flat looking, period manuals on painting generally describe some sort of varnish applied over the painting to protect it. Glair, gum Benzoin, and "amber" varnish are pretty typically described as methods of protecting painted illuminations.

Most mineral, charred/calcinated/corrosion, and earth pigments are prepared by placing the broken up clumps on a painters stone (usually a slab of pophery) and wet grinding with a muller. They may also be wet ground to paste with a mortar and pestle, but beware of marble or scientific sets. Both work well enough, but marble is too soft to grind any but the softest of pigments and neither set is able to give as find a grind as a muller on pophery or glass. Glass mullers can be purchased from art supply stores, or you can make a muller by attaching a plain ceramic knob to a wooden dowel. Verdigris needs to be ground with vinegar or sour wine and may be applied without a binder if desired. Smoke black doesn't need to be ground but does need to be made wet before mixing into paint. If it resists wetting, a drop of rubbing alcohol will start the process. If you grind a lot of pigment, store what you do not immediately use in a jar under a layer of water. If the pigment dries out, you'll have to grind it all again. 

Dye Pigments are prepared by creating a dye bath. To make a clothlet, dip a piece of cloth into the bath, allow it to dry, dip the cloth again, and so on, until the cloth is either the color you desire or will get no darker. When the cloth is dry, use it by either dipping a brush into a water and gum solution and then dragging it across the clothlet, or by putting the clothlet into a shell, pouring glair or gum Arabic solution over it, and allowing the binder to leach the color. This can be allowed to dry and used as any other paint. Leave the clothlet in there; don't try to take it out. Color will continue to leach out of the clothlet.  

Dye pigments may also be used by creating the dye bath and then adding an inert white pigment. This will then be dyed the color of the bath. Use this as you would any other pigment.

Dye pigments may also be used by allowing the dye bath to evaporate and scraping out the remaining residue. I, personally, find this too much hassle, but give it a try if you like.

1. Choose your pigment. 

2. Choose your binder. 

3. Prepare your binder, as instructed above. 

4. Prepare your pigment. Dry pigments should be mixed with water and made into a paste. Pigments that are quite coarse (with the exception of malachite and azurite) should be ground as finely as possible.  

5. Move a teaspoon of pigment paste into a small palette. Add a teaspoon of binder solution. Use a larger measurement if you wish to make more paint. Egg tempera not used on that day must be thrown away--when dry, it becomes waterproof. Mix the binder and the paste thoroughly.

6. Paint a test patch of paint on a scrap paper. When dry, brush the paint with your finger. If it smears, you need more binder. Check for shine. A very high shine means too much binder. Add more pigment paste. When in doubt, it is better to have a little too much binder, although a high excess of binder generally makes a brittle, flaking paint. Mixed egg and egg yolk binder generally create a paint with some sheen to it.  

7. Once your balance of pigment and binder satisfies you, start painting!