The following beginner's guide to genealogy was first syndicated to newspapers in 1977 and again in 1982 by the Register and Tribune Syndicate. While it has been updated to reflect such things as new addresses, it obviously doesn't deal with how you might effectively use them in genealogy work, since it was written before the days of home computers. Those experienced with computers will readily see applications in research, recordkeeping and printing out material. Richard A. Pence is co-author, with Paul Andereck, of Computer Genealogy, published by Ancestry, Inc., Salt Lake City, and has published several books on the Pence family.

HOW TO GET STARTED

One of the difficult aspects of genealogy - at least for me - is trying to explain to friends why a grown man should spend countless hours in a musty library or chasing around the country copying inscriptions from tombstones in overgrown cemeteries.

That sort of avocation, they think, is reserved for matronly ladies who want to join patriotic societies.

There are many who search their family trees for that reason alone. But genealogy is much more. It is a human history of our nation's growth and a puzzle infinitely more challenging than the crossword in the Sunday New York Times.

If you enjoy solving a mystery or are fascinated by the early history of our country, then genealogy may be the hobby for you. But where do you start? The best place is right at home.

The first thing you should do is write down all you know about your family, starting with yourself and your parents and working backward to your grandparents, great grandparents and so on. Chances are someone already has started this process; if so, your job will be easier.

You should include dates and places of births, marriages, deaths, places of residence and other information, such as occupation, military service or church affiliation.

When you get stuck, figure out who in your family might know the answer. In fact, you should try to interview your older relatives as a first order of business. With some luck, you may find out much of what you want to know about a particular branch of your family.

Early in my research I visited a great aunt who supposedly had kept some family records. I didn't really expect the treasure I found. Among the things she had: my third great grandmother's family Bible - complete with vital statistics for three generations - which had made its way from Massachusetts to a homestead in South Dakota nearly 100 years before; a family photo album with pictures that predated the Civil War and which contained photos of four of my third great grandparents; and old newspaper clippings, letters and notes which provided additional information and clues.

INTERVIEW POINTERS

There are things to keep in mind when interviewing or writing your relatives.

• First, make your questions specific. You'll have a better chance of getting a helpful answer. If you ask generally about early family recollections, your correspondent may not reply or may say that little can be remembered. Ask about specific people, specific times or places.
  
  I once wrote a great uncle, asking him for any information he might have on his ancestors. He answered, saying he didn't remember anything. I then wrote and asked him if he knew were his father had lived in 1870. His return letter not only solved that mystery, but included colorful stories about great grandfather's days as a cowboy in Texas and Kansas, stories told at bedtime when my great uncle was a boy.

• Second, inquire about photographs, diaries, letters and other family papers that may give clues for names and places your family lived. Look for items such as funeral cards, birth announcements or marriage, birth or death certificates.

• Third, keep track of what you are told in a carefully dated and documented fashion. Write down who told you and when they told you for each piece of information. If a relative sends you an undated letter, add the date you received it. If you use a tape recorder, begin the tape with the date and location and the name of the person you are interviewing, as well as your own name.

FAMILY TRADITIONS

You should treat family traditions with a certain amount of healthy skepticism. These stories - often embellished from generation to generation - are great clues for further research, but they shouldn't be accepted until they can be documented.

There are some traditions that seem to pop up in nearly every family. If you encounter one of these, don't disregard it - but be careful how you use it. Here are some:

1. The "Three Brothers." Invariably you will come across the belief that the founders of a particular family in this country were "three brothers, who came here at an early date." A common variation is that "one remained in New England, one went south and one went west."

   This tradition reflects the desire of an individual to believe that everyone with the same last name is somehow related. The "three brothers" theory neatly explains why there are families with that name throughout the country whose relationships can't be established. Most genealogists disregard this theory unless there is evidence otherwise.

2. "We're Related to Nobility." This tradition also is common but often not true. Variations include a lost dukedom, riches or a castle in some foreign land.

   Unscrupulous promotors have played upon the desire for wealth or status by convincing people to contribute toward a fund seeking to restore a lost fortune or property to its "rightful heirs" - usually everybody with the same last name as some rich or famous person.

   The strange thing about these con games is that the more you try to tell "Aunt Bessie" she's being taaken, the more she is convinced that there's a giant conspiracy aimed at depriving her and her relatives of their just inheritance.

   If it does turn out that you have an English Lord as an ancestor or that you and George Washington are descended from the same stock, then you have an interesting addition to the story of your family. (When you consider that in just 12 generations - less than 300 years - an individual has 8,190 ancestors it wouldn't be terribly unusual to find such a connection.) But don't forget that for every nobleman in most family trees, there are several dozen ancestors who came to this country as indentured servants.

3. Association With Famous People. You often will hear of some ancestor's association with famous people or events. Stories like these may have some foundation, but they often are impossible to document. However, if the facts seem to fit you'll want to continue researching the tradition.

4. As a small boy, I read a relative's account of how our ancestor - my third great grandfather - supposedly spent a winter in an Indian "wickiup" (teepee or lodge) and was later confronted by its owner, Blackhawk, the famous Sac chief. The story was worth more checking for two reasons: Our ancestor was known to be in that area of northwestern Illinois at the time, and history records that an incident such as this (according to Blackhawk's autobiography) was one of the things that led up to the Blackhawk Indian War in the early 1830s.

   Finally, several years ago, I discovered an eyewitness account of the event. Not only was our ancestor named as the intruder, but specific dates and places were given, thus documenting when the family moved into Illinois. In this case, a family tradition led to the eventual proof of an ancestor's participation in an interesting historical event and added illuminating details about his life.

5. But other traditions have never proved out. I'm still trying to document an item in an Indiana history that claims Abraham Lincoln visited once or twice at the home of a second great grandfather (Is it true? If so, what was the reason?), one that says New England relatives were frequent visitors of J. Pierpont Morgan, the financier (they were related to him through a Pierpont line, but at best distant cousins!), and still another that places an ancestor among those who participated in the Boston Tea Party (turns out he was a prominent leader during the Revolution, but no facts relate him to this event).

   There are some other common problems with family traditions you should watch for. Some examples:

   • An incident often will be credited to one side of the family when in fact it happened to another side. Your grandmother may tell you a story she heard as a child about something that happened to her paternal grandfather and later you discover that it was her maternal grandfather who was involved.

   • Sometimes the story will be credited to a person in the wrong generation. An example appears in my grandfather's obituary, which says he was descended from a "Revolutionary War veteran who became known as Judge John Pence." Since Judge John wasn't born until 1774, I knew this was impossible. I assumed what happened was that the family stretched a statement in an early family history from "the family goes back to Revolutionary days" into veteran's status for the first known ancestor. Years later I discovered documentation that John's father was the one who had served in the Revolution.

   • Mistakes about national origin can confuse a family's history. Your great grandmother may have denied a particular nationality because it was not "the thing to be" in her day. Consequently, your grandmother might pass on to you what she believes to be the truth; in reality, though, great grandmother " withheld evidence."

   • Don't be surprised if, while you're interviewing Aunt Bessie, she suddenly has amnesia after having displayed a remarkable memory about the family tree, complete with names, dates and places. Suddenly - when you ask her about a particular ancestor - she can't remember a thing. That's a sure sign you've found a family "black sheep" - we all have them!

KEEPING YOUR RECORDS

As you collect more and more information about your ancestors, you'll find that you will have an increasingly difficult time keeping track of who is who. That's when you'll want to set up some sort of record-keeping system.

A looseleaf notebook and alphabetical files are enough at first. The notebook is compact enough to be carried when doing research, yet it can contain enough information so you can double-check information on the spot. The alphabetical file provides a safe and orderly means of keeping copies of accumulated records or notes and correspondence about a particular family.

THE NOTEBOOK

These are the records I include in my "traveling notebook":

1. Family Ancestor Charts or Pedigree Charts. These charts, which can be purchased through most genealogical societies or from businesses or bookstores which specialize in genealogy, are for your direct ancestors only. They begin at the left of the page with an individual (you or your child or parent), then branch out to the right to show parents, grandparents, etc., including dates and places of births, deaths and marriages. If you are the "subject" of the chart (which is designated as Chart No. 1), you are assigned the number 1. Your father is No. 2, your mother is No. 3, your paternal grandfather is No. 4, and so on. Pedigree charts usually have complete information on three generations of ancestors for an individual, with the names of the members of the fourth generation plus a reference to succeeding charts, where vital information on them is recorded.

   • This commonly used numbering system for pedigree charts is called an "ahnentafel" by genealogists, after the title of a book where it was first used. By looking at a chart you can see that the number for any individual's father is 2 times that of the individual and that person's mother's number is 2 times plus 1. With the exception of No. 1, who can be either male or female, all even-numbered persons are males and all odd-numbered are females. The spouse of No. 1 is not assigned a number.

   • If you don't have charts, you can simply do an "ahnentafel listing" on a sheet of paper, with the persons listed in numerical order.

   • Carrying this numbering system over to other records allows quick identification of any person in your records and allows you to file numerically if you choose.

   • Charts subsequent to No. 1 are numbered sequentially, with Chart No. 2 having the ancestors of No. 16 (your great great grandfather), Chart No. 3 the ancestors of No. 17 and so on. All these charts are kept in the front of your notebook and provide a record of the statistics you have on your more distant ancestors. As you acquire information, you may need to include an index of each family name in your notebook. This index probably won't be necessary until you have traced several families back a half dozen or more generations.

2. Family Group Sheets. The other major section in your notebook is a collection of family group sheets containing information about each couple whose names are on your pedigree charts. These sheets can be arranged alphabetically by last name or numerically according to your pedigree charts.

   • Included on these sheets is the following information: name of husband, date and place of his birth, marriage, death and burial, and names of his parents. Similar information is given for the wife and for each of the couple's children with room for their spouses' names. Space is left for other information such as places of residence, occupation, church affiliation and military service.

   • Also included is such information as additional marriages for either husband or wife and the citation or source of each piece of information. Children born from other marriages of your ancestors are listed on separate family group sheets. Adopted children may be listed if the adoption is noted.

   • As with pedigree charts, family group sheets can be done on a plain sheet of paper. Among places where these forms can be ordered are: The National Genealogical Society, 4527 Seventeenth Street North, Arlington, VA 22207; New England Historical and Genealogical Society, 101 Newbury Street, Boston MA 02116; the Everton Publishers, P.O. Box 368, Logan, UT 84321; or they may be bought at any of the many branch libraries of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and in bookstores which deal in genealogy or history.

   • The information on your family group sheets will provide you with backup facts for those contained on your charts and also will come in handy on your research excursions.

   • While you may not be directly interested in facts about the brothers and sisters (siblings) of your ancestors, this information often can provide a vital clue about your own direct line.

   • For instance, you might learn that a particular great grandfather's name was John Doe, but you don't know his father's name. From other sources, you learn that John had a brother named James and a sister Elizabeth. Put this information, with actual or approximate dates of birth, on the children's portion of a family group sheet.

   • If the children you know about seem to have several years between their dates of birth, you should leave blanks for other probable children. Also leave the spaces for the parents blank. Later in your research, you may discover that a Samuel Doe had children named John, James and Elizabeth, as well as others. Check this information against what you have learned about your great grandfather and his siblings. If there's enough to convince you that Samuel may indeed be John's father, then you can begin in earnest to find out more about him.
   • There's another important reason for learning about the brothers and sisters of your ancestors: They can provide clues to earlier generations of a family.
   • Building on the above information, suppose your great grandfather and one or more of his brothers named their first sons Samuel. This would be added evidence that Samuel was John's father, for it was the custom in the last century to name the first son after the paternal grandfather.
   • Likewise, the second son was commonly named after the maternal grandfather, and suceeding sons were often named after uncles or great uncles. The girls, too, were often named after their grandmothers or great grandmothers.
   • And given names that appear to be surnames also can provide clues to a mother's or grandmother's maiden name. Naming a son John Smith Doe might indicate that his maternal grandfather's name was John Smith.
   • Your family group sheets can also help in establishing ages of the parents and children. Suppose you are piecing together information on a family and you only have ages or birthdates for a few of the children. Group the children as best you can from the oldest down to the youngest.
   • If you know the spread of time from the oldest to the youngest, you may be able to approximate the mother's age by keeping in mind normal childbearing ages. Statistics tell us that the average age for men to marry is about 25; for women, about 21. The average time between children is about two years, sometimes less.
   • If there is a gap of several years between children, it likely could indicate that one or more children died at birth or in infancy. Another possibility is that the older group of children had a different mother who died and the younger group are the offspring of a second marriage.
   • Large numbers of children with a spread of 25 years between the youngest and oldest definitely should lead you to examine whether there was another wife. If you know there was an earlier wife, but are unsure as to when she died, think of the possibility she may have died in childbirth, a frequent cause of death in early days.

THE FILE

A secondhand standard letter-size file cabinet should do the job. Initially, I had a file folder for each family name filed alphabetically. As the amount of information grew, however, these folders had to be subdivided.

I now have dozens of folders for the Pence family, including several for some individuals, plus many for unrelated Pence families. (In the course of your research, you'll accumulate a lot of material on unrelated lines. You'll want to file this material because it can help you prove or disprove theories about your own lines. In my case, piecing together all of the various Pence families in the U.S. eventually became an overriding genealogical interest.

Above all, remember as you go about your genealogical research that everything must be verified or documented before it can be considered genealogical evidence. Place each bit of information, its source, the place you found it, the date and other pertinent facts on a sheet and put it into its proper file folder as soon as you can.

SECONDARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Primary records are those which report an event at or close to the time it happened. They are original records of events and include state or federal census records; courthouse records, such as deeds, wills, probates, birth or death records, naturalization records, or court proceedings (both civil and criminal); church records, primarily baptism and marriage; ships' passenger lists; and military records.

Secondary, or published records, include histories, indexes or compilations of census or marriage records, printed family histories or genealogies, and collections of tombstone inscriptions.

Primary records are the most reliable source of information, but secondary sources can provide you with many shortcuts in your genealogical research. A printed family genealogy, for example, might have information on several generations of a given line you're searching.

Most competent genealogists consider published family histories only as clues for further searching. They use the dates and places as evidence of where to search for more supporting information. A well-done family history or genealogy will include citations to primary records and will greatly simplify your future research

LIBRARIES

In your search for secondary reference materials, you'll want to start at your local - or nearest larger - library, especially if your family has lived in your county or state for many years. Ask your librarian for local histories and genealogies; one of these might, for instance, tell you where your family lived before it came to the county where you now live. Also check the libraries in nearby counties.

Often the books you need to check will not be available locally. If you have a fairly good idea of the information you want and which book it is in you may be able to write your state library (or another library) and ask for specific information.

Many state libraries have genealogical finding aids which can help you. Some have indexes of names in early histories or other printed or microfilm records, such as marriage record indexes. Write your state library and ask for information. Most have a pamphlet describing what is available.

Many will copy printed or microfilm records for you for a fee. They also may be able to provide you with a list of people who will undertake genelogical research for you for a fee.

The Library of Congress (Washington, DC 20540) has an excellent collection of genealogies and local histories. If your travels include a trip to Washington, this is a must visit. The library's small staff can only do a limited amount of searching in the catalogs and indexes for specific titles or references if you query it by mail.

You can write the library for free leaflets describing its services. The three most helpful are "Reference Services and Facilities of the Local History and Genealogy Room," "Guide to Genealogical Research: A Selected List," and "Surnames: A Selected List of Books."

The Library of the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolution (1776 D Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20006), has an extensive genealogical collection, including printed genealogies as well as manuscripts submitted by individuals or local chapters. It also has Bible, church and cemetery records, abstracts of court records, lineage books, and other materials. The Library is open to nonmembers for a small fee except during April.

The National Genealogical Society has its own library and maintains a library loan service and research service for members. The library collection includes published and unpublished works pertaining to genealogy, local history and heraldry. It is open to nonmembers for a small fee.

The most famous genealogical library is that of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (35 North West Temple, Salt Lake City, UT 84150). It has a massive genealogical collection, much of it on microfilm or microfiche and available through branch libraries around the country.

Its collection includes a computer-produced genealogical library catalog on microfiche; the latest edition of the International Genealogical Index, which lists the names and selected vital data of approximately 88 million deceased persons from over 90 countries; the Accelerated Indexing System's microfiche index for 1790-1850; an extensive list of library aids and reference books; and the Family Registry of some 100,000-plus names coordinating the searchers with the names being searched.

The library is open to the public and specialists in most areas are available for consultation.

You'll save a lot of backtracking if you make certain you don't leave a library, court house or other research site without a complete citation regarding information you've found. Also write down the citations and general content for books you didn't find anything in and keep a list of those so you won't go over the same ground again. This list can also be of help in case you need to go back to check these sources for newly discovered ancestors.

GENEALOGIES AND LOCAL HISTORIES

Local histories were very popular in the latter part of the 1800s, especially in the Midwest. Most of them were money-making efforts of large publishers who sent teams of people out into a county. These people collected some local history and local biographies and added them to a pre-packaged state history.

They also sold books, for that is the way the publishers made money. And the way to make sure they would sell more copies was to include flowery write-ups about county residents - either for a fee or upon the subject's promise to buy one or more of the usually high-priced books. The more prominent one was made to appear, the more books he was likely to buy, so the publisher's word craftsmen spared no adjectives.

The biographies were full of "loyal patriots," "respected farmers" and "prominent merchants," as well as "loving wives and mothers."

Even with these drawbacks, there often is much genealogical information in these presentations. Usually the names of previous generations are given, along with the wife's maiden name and the names of her parents. Often included were the dates the family came to the county and where it had previously lived.

One of the major drawbacks of family genealogies and histories, especially those published in the Nineteenth Century, is the lack of adequate documentation. As often as not, the author - in his zeal to trace the family back to the Mayflower or other illustrious beginnings - made serious mistakes. The most common one was assuming that an ancestor was the son of a particular man with the same name without proper documentation.

On the other hand, these books provide excellent clues for further research. You can usually make your own judgments as to the accuracy of a particular genealogy by noting such things as completeness and citiations to specific sources.

THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES

The value of primary records is that they are contemporary with the event which they record. Thus they are more likely to be accurate than a record made some time later from memory.

The National Archives and Records Administration (Washington, DC, 20408) is the repository for the U.S. government. It preserves and makes available valuable federal records from all three branches of government. The records in the custody of the National Archives are housed in the National Archives building in Washington, DC, (bounded by Pennsylvania and Constitution Avenues and 7th and 9th Streets, N.W.), in the Washington National Records Center in Suitland, MD, and in eleven archives branches around the country.

CENSUS RECORDS

The 1850 census was the first to include the name of each person in a household, including age, sex, color, occupation, and birth place (state, territory or foreign country), occupation and value of real estate and personal property (usually just for the head of the household). In 1870 the census gave the month of birth if born during the year, the month of marriage if married within the year, and whether the father or mother of each individual was foreign born. The 1880 census added two valuable pieces of information: the relationship of each person to the head of the household and the birthplace of the father and mother of each person. The 1890 census was largely destroyed by fire in 1921 and only fragments of it are available for research.

The 1900 and 1910 censuses are the most helpful available. The 1900 census included the month and year of birth of each individual, as well as the number of years married for each couple, the number of children the woman had borne, and the number living in 1900. The census indicated whether a family rented or owned its own residence, whether it was a home or a farm, and whether it was mortgaged. For foreign born, the year of immigration was given and whether naturalized or first papers filed. The 1910 census has similar information and includes whether it was a first marriage or, if not, what number, language spoken, employment status, and whether served in the Union or Confederate army or navy.

Because of the confidential nature of census records, Congress determines when each census may be released. Current law requires that census information remain confidential for 72 years. The 1920 census, available in 1992, is the last to have been indexed.

Published indexes are available for all U.S. censuses from 1790 through 1850. Computerized indexes of the 1860 census for most states will be available in a few years.

The 1790 census - those parts available - was published by the government in the early 1900s and has since been privately reprinted. Published census schedules for 1790 are for Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina and Vermont.

The schedules for the remaining states - Delaware, Georgia, Kentucky, New Jersey, Tennessee and Virginia - were burned during the War of 1812. Substitute schedules, made from names in state censuses or tax lists, have been published for many of the missing states. These printed 1790 schedules are available in most larger libraries.

The 1880, 1900 and most of the 1910 censuses have "soundex" indexes on microfilm. The soundex is a coded surname index based on the way a surname sounds rather than how it is spelled. The 1880 soundex includes only those households with a child 10 or younger.

In using a census index, be certain that you have looked for your surname in all of its possible spelling variations. Remember also that indexes, including those produced by a computer, are subject to human error. Every genealogist has a horror story about printed census indexes; studies show that the error rate is high because of improper keypunching or misreading of the original records. So if you don't find your ancestor in an index it doesn't necessarily mean that he cannot be found in the census. You may often have to search every name in a given county before you find him.

The National Archives has original or microfilm copies of all the federal census schedules that have been made available to the public. These can be used in the microfilm reading room in the National Archives or at one of the eleven branches. If you are searching in Washington, enter the Pennsylvania Avenue side of the building. You will need to sign in and out and notebooks or brief cases are subject to search. The reading room is located on the fourth floor. While a researcher's identification card is necessary for certain research in the National Archives, you don't need one to use the microfilm reading room. In any case they are available in the lobby upon request.

To help with your census search, the Archives has a free booklet, "Getting Started: Beginning Your Genealogical Research in the National Archives." Included is an explanation of the soundex system.

If you are unable to visit a library where census record microfilms are available, the National Archives will, on request, send you a copy of each of its catalogs of microfilm copies: "Federal Population Censuses 1790-1890," "1900 Federal Population Census," and "The 1910 Federal Population Census." Prices and order blanks are included. Also, many county libraries have microfilm copies of census records for their local areas.

Census records cannot always be relied on as accurate. Persons giving the information may not have known the exact ages or places of birth of each member of the household. And there's always been vanity about ages - I've noted cases where people aged only five years in the ten years between the censuses! Census takers spelled what they heard and many of them spelled badly. And apparently they weren't hired because of their penmanship. Even so, the family listing in a census gives you valuable information and provides clues for further research.

MILITARY RECORDS

Compiled military service records are of limited genealogical value. They serve primarily to prove military service by your ancestor. For the most part, they consist of the serviceman's rank, military unit, dates of service, payroll and muster rolls, discharge, desertion or death. A few of the later war records include some personal information such as age, birthplace and physical description.

Microfilm indexes of military service records are available for the following periods: Revolution, 1775-1783; post-Revolution, 1784-1811; War of 1812, 1812- 1815; Indian Wars, 1817-1858; Mexican War, 1846-1848; Civil War, Union troops, 1861-1865; Civil War, Confederate troops, 1861-1865; Spanish-American War, 1898-1899; and the Philippine Insurrection, 1899-1902.

Pension application records are the most important military records for genealogists. The National Archives has pension applications and payment records for veterans, widows and other heirs. They are based on service in the U.S. armed forces between 1775 and 1916, but not duty in the service of the Confederate States.

Genealogical information in these files varies. In the file for one of my ancestors was an "autograph letter" recounting his experiences during the Revolution as well as statements signed by John Hancock attesting to his service in Maine, along with notarized information relating to his marriage and the birth of his children. Others may contain only depositions relating to the applicant's service, his age, birthplace and place of residence. Widow's applications often have more material, for they had to furnish the date and place of the marriage, the date and place of her husband's death, her maiden name, age, residence, and the names and ages of her children.

The National Genealogical Society compiled and published an alphabetical name index of the Revolutionary War pension applications files and is working on one for the War of 1812.

To secure photocopies of military or pension records by mail, write the National Archives Reference Service Branch (NNIR) and ask for copies of its military request order forms. Information on the form must be as complete as possible for an effective search to be made. At a minimum, you must know the state from which he served and the period when he served. There is a charge for this service.

Some state archives or libraries have additional military records - or copies of the federal records - so you will want to check there. Iowa, for instance, has an excellent collection gathered as a part of a WPA project in the 1930s and maintained by military authorities. Some states also issued pensions; inquiries about these should be directed to the state where the veteran lived after the war.

PASSENGER ARRIVAL RECORDS/FEDERAL LAND RECORDS

If your ancestor lived in one of the "public land" states (30 states, primarily from Ohio west) and bought land directly from the federal government, you can request a search of the National Archives Records. You will need to furnish your ancestor's full name, the state in which he or she acquired land, whether the land was acquired before or after 1908, and, if possible, the legal description of the land by section, township and range. If you don't have a legal description, describe its location as precisely as you can. There is a fee for this service and it may take several weeks to process your order.

STATE AND LOCAL RECORDS

Unfortunately, many of these records have been lost by fire or, perhaps, carelessness. And in most states, birth and death records weren't kept until this centrury. Marriage records are often available for much earlier years.

In general, early records for most of New England are fairly complete. Most Massachusetts vital records have been published. In the South, however, many early records weren't centrally kept or were lost or burned.

In most states records of interest to genealogists are kept in the state archives, the state library and a land office. County records not transferred to the state archives are usually found in county courthouses. In New England some records, particularly vital records, are kept in town halls.

Many state libraries have developed information sheets that will help you begin your research. There are also published genealogical research guides available for many states.

The government publication, "Where to Write for Vital Records," gives specific information on the location of these records. Issued periodically, it is available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, or can be found in many libraries. It lists information by state and includes the repository, address and cost of each certificate.

"The Handy Book for Genealogists" is a particularly helpful guide. It contains information on local record sources, including published state and local histories, lists of libraries and historical societies, county maps of each state, a listing of counties, with records available in each and whom and where to write for them, date the county was formed and its parent counties, and a rundown of available census records and indexes to them. Available from Everton Publishers, P.O. Box 369, Logan, UT 84321.

You can find out what records are available in a county by writing the county clerk. (The exact county official in charge of various records varies from state to state; a letter addressed to the clerk will usually be passed on to the proper office.)

If you can provide a specific name and an approximate date for a document (deed, birth, death, marriage, will, etc.), the clerk can find and copy the record for you at a nominal fee (usually about $3).

VITAL RECORDS

An additional problem is that information found in them is not always accurate. Early records may not be complete, the person providing the information may have given inaccurate data either intentionally or by mistake, or other errors have occured in copying or indexing.

If a parent gave the information for a birth certificate, you can assume it is accurate. Beware, however, of information provided for a death certificate. A person giving such information for his grandfather often didn't know the pertinent information asked, such as date and place of birth, or gave confused information. As an example, a great uncle provided information for the death certificate of his father (my great grandfather) and in the blank for the decedant's mother's maiden name (a sorely needed piece of information for me) is listed my great uncle's mother's name, not that of his father's mother.

While the date of death given on a death certificate is usually accurate, the cause of death may not be as complete as you'd like even though furnished by a coroner or doctor. The cause of death for one of my ancestors is listed as "apoplexy" (stroke). Under "contributory causes," the doctor wrote "drunkeness" and under "how long" he entered "many years"! (A story begging to be learned! Followup led to an obituary which recounted a trip to town the Friday night before he died and the wrecking of the buggy on the way home; the obituary was diplomatically silent about the cause of the accident.)

Marriage records are usually dependable, since the persons involved supplied the information. However, sometimes folks fudged about their ages - either because they were too young to marry without permission of their parents or they didn't want the clerk to know exactly how old they were. My father was married a few months before his 21st birthday and gave his age as 21, thus avoiding the hassel of getting his father to sign. And Dad went to a neighboring county for the marriage license, knowing that his home county would verify his age against his birth record.

PROBATE RECORDS

If no will can be found, you must search for other papers. Usually you will find court orders appointing an administrator or executor. If a person left a will, he often named an "executor" of the will and the court required that person to post a bond. If a person died "intestate" (without a will), then the court usually appointed an "administrator." Thus the use of executor or administrator in court records indicates whether a will was left. Most counties have indexes of executors' and administrators' bonds. If you search long enough and hard enough you can almost always find some court record of a person's death - at least those who owned property, for there had to be some disposition of that property.

DEEDS

Deeds can also help establish whether an ancestor was married, since the sale of land requires the wife's consent. The absence of a wife's name indicates the seller was unmarried at the time. In one case, I was unable to find the date of death for an ancestor's wife prior to his remarriage to another woman. To complicate matters, both women had the given name Elizabeth. However, careful checking of deeds involved in his many land transactions revealed a period of about two years when he sold land without a wife signing. This information revealed the approximate dates of the first woman's death and his later remarriage.

While most counties have accurate indexes of deed records, usually these are a "grantor" (seller) index and a "grantee" (buyer) index. Other persons who may be mentioned in a deed are not indexed and the information you are looking for may be "lost" in one of dozens of deed books. I once solved a perplexing genealogical problem for another person quite by accident. She wrote wanting to know if perhaps two of her ancestor's daughters had married into the Pence family since the two families were neighbors. They hadn't. But one day while checking a deed for some land my ancestor had bought, I discovered all of the information relating to the marriages of her ancestor's children. Turned out that the land was being sold by her ancestor's heirs, one of whom was a daughter whose existence and married name were unknown. The deed was indexed under the name of the unknown daughter's husband along with "et al" - "and others." Naturally, the persons she was looking for were among the "others." Moral: You may have to check deeds for in-laws of your ancestors as well as those for neighbors in order to find that elusive fact.

GUARDIAN BONDS

COURTHOUSE RESEARCH TIPS

Remember that in the early years of our country, many people could not read or write, so watch for variant spellings of the name you are searching. Often names were recorded as they sounded to clerks. This is how the name Bentz became Pence in most parts of the U.S. (The German "B" is often pronounced as "P.") Most often the spellings we use today were the result of an accident, not a deliberate effort. It's probably not worth your while to look for a court record for a name change, for it was seldom done. Likewise, people who spell a similar surname different from you may be related to you, while those who spell it the same may not.

A few years ago, notice was taken of the legal name change made by a prominent person. A Johannes Hart Pence lived in New Jersey in colonial times. One of his sons, out of deference to his grandmother's maiden name, began using Hartpence as his surname. Generations later, a member of this family, remembering the story about the name having been changed in early days, went to court to have it changed back to "the old way." That's why a presidential candidate has the name Gary Hart instead of Gary Pence!

Another thing to watch for is translation of names. The German Zimmerman became its English equivalent, Carpenter, for example.

You also need to watch for misspellings of place names, particularly in deeds. In searching for the spot where an ancestor lived, I kept finding it described as being "at the foot of Rich Mountain." No such place could be found on any map, old or new, in the area. I finally figured out why. The ancestor was German and if he described the land to an English clerk, he would describe it with a German accent. If the word was pronounced "rich," what might the correct word be? Answer: "Ridge." Sure enough, Ridge Mountain was on the map and the land was located.

And, in earlier times, the boundaries of the counties were constantly changing. Thus, in order for you to concentrate your research in the proper place, you need to know the geographic history of the areas you are interested in.

For instance, some of my ancestors lived for many years in Shenandoah County, VA. This county was created in 1772 from a portion of Frederick County, which in turn was created in 1738 from Orange and Augusta counties - both of which were carved out of other counties. And today, the land on which they lived is located in Page County, which was created from Shenandoah County in 1833. Therefore, depending on the dates involved, you might have to search the courthouses of three or more counties to find the appropriate record for an individual.

Everton's "Handy Book" (mentioned earlier) can provide you with information about the formation of counties.

FAMILY BIBLES

Also, you should check the handwriting carefully. If several entries are in the same shade of ink in almost identical handwriting, it's a good sign those entries were made at the same time and probably not concurrent with the event. The date of the last nearly identical record is probably closest to the recording date.

TOMBSTONE RECORDS

When copying cemetery inscriptions, be careful not to misread numbers or letters. The number 4 is often carved with a light horizontal line that wears away leaving what looks like the number 1 or 7. Other numbers that are easy to misread: 3 and 8, 8 and 6, 5 and 3. Letters usually are more distinct, but C, G, D and O can be confused. Mar and May are hard to distinguish, as are Jul and Jun. When copying, place a question mark over letters or numbers you are unsure of.

Be sure to record surrounding stones, for they can provide clues to family relationships. Look for markers outlining family plots and note the names of all those buried within the plot. A woman who was a widow for a number of years, or a bride who died young, might be buried with her parents, and others with different names may be related.

Many cemeteries will not be well cared for and will be badly overgrown. The best time to search is the early spring or late fall when the foliage is thin and the weeds short. Helpful equipment for "tombstone hunting" includes carpenter's chalk (for rubbing over letters to make them easier to read), a putty knife to scrape debris off fallen stones, a scrub brush to clean stones, a crowbar to turn heavy stones, perhaps an axe to clear away underbrush or a shovel to dig away from sunken stones, and a camera to record unusual stones.

Even if your ancestor is buried in an unmarked grave, if you know the cemetery he or she is buried in you can sometimes get information about him from cemetery records. Write a library or historical society near the cemetery to learn if such records are available. Larger city cemeteries usually have a sexton who maintains such records. If one exists for the cemetery you are interested in, that is the person to contact.

NEWSPAPERS

Some local libraries have microfilm or other copies of early newspapers and many state libraries have extensive collections. The Library of Congress has an excellent collection of early American newspapers.

If you know the place and date of marriage, birth or death, you can usually get a copy of any mention of it (at least for more recent years) by writing newspapers in the area. Your library probably has a directory of newspapers in the U.S.

"Newspaper Indexes: A Location and Subject Guide for Researchers," 3 vols., by Anita Cheek Milner (Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, NJ), lists newspaper indexes by state, county and town, indicating the repositories in which they can be found.

CHURCH RECORDS

"A Survey of American Church Records," by E. Kay Kirkham (Everton Publishers, Logan, UT), is a guide to the location of church records that have been published or deposited in public archives.

OTHER HELP

If you get stuck on a particular line, placing a query in a genealogical publication may yield results. If you follow this route, BE SPECIFIC. Saying you will "exchange information on the Baker family" won't bring many responses because readers won't know who it is you are looking for or if they have information that will help you.

Try this approach: "Need parents of James L. Baker, born OH 1812, married Sue Allen in Bartholomew County, IN, in 1837; lived Warren County, IN, 1850 census. Who were his parents? Hers? Was George Baker, Bartholomew County 1850 his brother or cousin?" [NOTE: I made up all of the foregoing information, but after this article began appearing in local newspapers, I got a response to it!]

If you write others seeking information, remember your mail manners. Because you're asking them to help you, you should make it easy for them. Ask questions precisely. Include as much information as necessary to identify the individual you are interested in, but don't include extraneous material. A short, to-the- point letter will get a response. One dealing with a variety of subjects will be set aside because of the extensive work involved in answering it.

Be responsive to the needs of the individual you are writing and offer information you may have that could be of help. Offer to pay the cost of copies of material you request or to reimburse for out-of-pocket expenses. And it's customary when writing to seek information to include an SASE (self-addressed stamped envelope) for the reply.

Keep a copy of the letters you send, for it may be difficult from the reply to tell what you said in your request. And it's a good idea to keep a log of in- coming and out-going letters, including a notation as to when particular letters were answered.