Cymbeline and James's Attempt at Union and Peace

 

With the accession of James, Shakespeare’s acting company became know as the King’s Men and were at least partly under the patronage of James VI and I. (Kernan XV) Since Shakespeare was the main playwright for the King’s Men, we can assume that he wrote with the court as his intended audience. Considering the other works of Jacobean patronage and the topicality of union and peace, my argument is that Shakespeare wrote Cymbeline to show support for James’s attempt at union and his pursuit for peace with the Papacy and Catholic nations.

According to Roger Warren, we are able to date Cymbeline from an account by Simon Forman. Since he died on 8 September 1611, we know it was performed before then. In his preface to the Oxford Shakespeare edition of Cymbeline there is also evidence to support that this play was written as a celebration piece for James’s son, Henry, when he was made Prince of Wales in June 1610. There is another argument that suggests that Cymbeline was used as source for Heywood’s The Golden Age, which is dated in 1610. Although much of this is speculative, it seems logical to place the dating of the play somewhere around the late summer or early autumn of 1610. (63-67)

Cymbeline is a sympathetic portrait of James’s dream of peace in Britain. This is seen in the peaceful resolution of the play when Cymbeline announces "Our peace we’ll ratify, seal it with feasts…Never was a war did cease, ere bloody hands were washed, with such a peace." (5.4.484-86) Along with The Tempest and A Winter’s Tale, this play was written as a work of patronage for James. Although there is no record of Cymbeline being performed at court, there is evidence that suggests this. Since it was written around the same time as the two other plays and that those plays were performed at court, it can be assumed that such a topical play was indeed intended and performed at court. Since the main theme in Cymbeline is reconciliation, we can see how the play would have had a topical value at the time it was performed. Such topicality leads me to believe that it was performed at court with other such topical pieces as The Tempest and A Winter’s Tale.

James’s "grand design for his new Kingdom: internal peace, as well as peace abroad, an end to civil war and an end to Anglo Scottish wars" (Coward 136) meant that he would have to dissolve the tensions between Catholics and Protestants, and between the English and the Scots. The scene where Cymbeline gives tribute to Rome parallels the nobility of James’s willingness to give tribute to Rome. Through James’s willingness to get rid of the hostile laws between Scotland and England and his proclamation of recognising Rome as a base from which Protestantism has sprung, he is moving towards a period where there will be a sort of Pax Romana in Britain. "Shakespeare was deliberately manipulating his source material when constructing his play in order to be able to comment indirectly on his patron’s own aspirations for his children, Britain, and Europe." (Wickham 105)

James had adapted the symbol of a lion as his royal ensign, so it is no accident that Posthumous, one of the unifying symbols of Cymbeline, is given the name Leonatus. For it is James the Lion who will bring peace to Britain, whilst the King also helps to bring about the peace in Cymbeline. The images of Posthumous and Cymbeline both represent James’s struggle for union and the possible outcomes. While Posthumous has defeated the Romans and saved the nation, it is Cymbeline who must restore order. It can be argued that James is both the courageous Posthumous and the peace bringing Cymbeline.

The self-proclaimed image of James as peacemaker is portrayed by the Jupiter masque in Cymbeline. "Jupiter is pushing for the Union of Kingdoms." He "is clearly to be identified with King James, the Creator of Britain." (Marcus 119) James is the thundering Jupiter whose job it is to squelch rebellion and make sure that Posthumous is saved. (5.3.189-206) The tablet that is handed down by Jupiter is the will of the Creator James, which for sees the happy union of Scotland to England and the peace to come between Britain and Rome. The Masque is a sympathetic mirror of the King’s desire for peace and union. The image of Jupiter/James as the peacemaker and figure of Justice is essential to Shakespeare’s view of James’s policies. For if Jupiter were unjust, or unable to set things right, that would show Shakespeare’s lack of faith in the Monarch.

Shakespeare draws on the British sense of national identity through its past. This occurs during the reign of Elizabeth where we see the rising of a British identity. It is The Queen’s speech (3.1.17-34) which harkens the reader back to a day when Britain was a nation of its own. But Shakespeare is not using the Queen as a hero. Instead, the Queen is portrayed as a self-serving villain who uses the terms of nationalism to support her own ends. She plays false to Posthumous and desires only that her son, Cloten, be married to Imogen. It is her plan to poison both Imogen and the King that shows that she has no concern for the legitimacy of the ruler of her nation. The ruler should be someone who will do her bidding. She thirsts for control of the nation and will murder for it.

"The Queen and Cloten, though British and the upholders of Britains integrity, are nevertheless conceived as types which Cymbeline, that is Britain, must finally reject." (Knight 137) If the King fails to rid himself of these self-serving people then the nation will be in jeopardy of losing all. Cloten and his mother symbolise the resistance to the union of Scotland and England and of James’s vision of both inward and outward peace. If peace is to succeed James has to come to terms with Parliament’s desire to assimilate Scotland into England rather than a conjoining of the two nations. (Smith 27)

The Queen’s nationalistic speech shows "how fraught early Modern English nationalism was with fears of the unrespectable, or, in the language of the period, the uncivil or barbaric." (Mikalachki 307) This is the same attitude that was held toward the Scots, and in some respects, Catholics, at the time of the accession of James. By showing the selfish interest behind the Queen’s nationalism, Shakespeare is showing the sometimes-selfish interests of those opposed to the union of England and Scotland. Those that are opposed to the union are perceived as false proponents of English nationalism whom appear interested only in how the union will effect them.

When James came to the throne he "was an alien and a member of a nation hated by the English." (Coward 119) Shakespeare must have been aware of this. In Cymbeline we get a glimpse at a drama performed for the court and intended not only to win the favour of it, but also to show its project of union in a positive light. Although there is no one person in the play that can be said to represent James, it can be asserted that the play as a whole is more sympathetic to the Stuart court than any other plays of the time, (i.e., Eastward Ho).

Both Shakespeare and James build upon the Tudor myth to plead for the Monarch’s authority. In his speech to parliament in 1604, James emphasises that he is heir to the throne through his ancestor’s marriage to a Tudor. Shakespeare no doubt uses Milford Haven, the rumoured landing place of Henry VII, as a way of supporting the legitimacy of the Stuart claim. It is there that we find the lost heirs and where true nobility is revealed. This is a commentary on reliance that the English have had on the Welsh in the past to bring about stability to the Nation, and that they should also rely on the ‘Scottish James’ to further that stability.

"No British King or statesman of the 17th or 18th century was as thorough, imaginative, or genuinely dedicated to the creation of a united national community of the British people as James." (Levack 180) It is this dedication that Shakespeare honours in Cymbeline. Despite the cajoling and influence of those around him to establish a nation free from its past, Cymbeline eventually brings forth a successful nation just as James hoped to do. But James is not able to do so on his own. It is not until the lowly Posthumous and the lost heirs rescue the British that Cymbeline gets the chance to establish a British nation. Once he pays the tribute due to Rome there can be peace. James’s willingness to pursue peace shows he is acting in the same nature as Cymbeline. He is as dedicated as Cymbeline in his project of union.

In the play "Imogen’s problem is quite simply that she is ‘worth more’ than her husband, a point which is constantly emphasised throughout the play." (Thompson 81) Many English viewed themselves as being better than their northern counterparts. This sentiment is also found among James’s Protestant subjects when they compared themselves with the corruption found in the Papacy. James needs to convince the opposition to plans of national union and Catholic reconciliation that both plans would bring peace to Britain, along with minimal negative effect on England.

It takes the near extinction of the British nation for Cymbeline to see that Posthumous is a worthy husband for Imogen. Eventually, Cymbeline realises that he was tricked by his Queen and son, the false nationalists, and views Posthumous as a man unparalleled in Britain. (5.3.146-8) For it is Posthumous who helps to secure the nation, while the Queen led it to war with Caesar and the near destruction of the British nation. James could envision that peace would only come by peaceful means. However, he could not force the union of kingdoms any more than the treaty with Spain. There would have to be a gradual shift of hostilities with positive results. Shakespeare uses the resolution in Cymbeline to show his audience that when union and reconciliation is achieved there will be a period of peace in Britain.

After his initial request for a union of the two kingdoms, James’s project needed a great deal of implementing. Although the repeal of mutually hostile laws in 1607 is a direct result of his Parliament’s refusal to fully support union, it is not enough to gain support for James. Yet he could hope that by providing an immediate benefit through union, he would gain support, but support did not come easily. Since many English still felt threatened by absorption of England into Scotland, James tries to propose further measures that would ease the English.

With the treaty of 1604 the English were able to move more freely on the seas. This enabled the economy to grow as well as stopping the drain on the nation’s treasury. James hopes to further the economy of Britain by encouraging free trade between England and Scotland. The first step of this incentive was to remove the hostile laws between the two Kingdoms. James could hope that this would eventual lead to a unified and stronger economy. But once again his plan was foiled and progress came slowly. The economic benefit of union and peace is not enough to calm the fears of both kingdoms that one would absorb the other.

Another remarkable event of the early years of James’s rule is the peace with Spain. By 1604 the Treaty of London had made an end to military conflict with Spain. During the following years, James spent a good deal of time trying to manufacture a marriage between his son Henry and a Catholic or Spanish Princess. Although these attempts are filled with many trying events they showed James’s willingness to foster peace with an enemy through a rather personal union in his son. To balance this proposed marriage, James actively sought for a Protestant match for his daughter Elizabeth. This would appease those opposed to a Catholic match for Henry and secure the status of Britain’s prominence in the protestant States on the Continent. These events are mirrored in Cymbeline during the end of the play where peace and justice reign.

The focus of union at the end of the play would have had a topical value when it was performed because it was at this time that James is pushing for peace with Spain and Papal Rome. The masque, and the ensuing resolution, can be seen as a mirror of James’s policy held up for the public and court. It could have been used to gain support for the King’s plans of union and peace: ideas that met much resistance. My argument is that the image of peace, union, and reconciliation, at the end of Cymbeline, are meant to gain support for James.

There is also the matter of how Protestants viewed the Catholic Church. James himself describes the Papacy as being "defiled with some infirmities and corruption." He goes on to say that he wishes to treat the Papacy as a doctor would treat a sick man:

I am none enemy to the life of a sick man because I would have his body purged of ill humours, no more am I the enemy to their (Catholic) Church because I would have them reform their errors…that it might be purged and cleansed from corruption. (Tanner 28)

Certainly, his form of logic shows through in Cymbeline as support for peace with Spain and the Catholic League. In fact, Britain has the upper hand with dealings towards the Catholics on the Isle. James as head of Britain had the opportunity to continue conflict with Rome or to create a peace and healing process that would involve the assimilation of British Catholics into the British nation. With the declaration of the Oath of Allegiance, James hopes there will be a healing of the British Catholics and the opportunity for the peaceful sovereignty over them and Protestant alike. Moreover, the peace in Cymbeline is a parallel to the delicate nature of the Kings role as peacemaker, and his willingness to procure such a peace.

Focusing on the marriage between the royal Imogen and the Roman Posthumous we can account that Cymbeline is a play that was sympathetic to the reconciliation of Protestantism and Catholicism. This is furthered by Cymbeline’s willingness to pay tribute to Caesar. Importantly, Shakespeare portrays both unions as being beneficial to the British nation. It is Posthumous who helps the Britains to secure peace and it is Cymbeline’s acts of reconciliation that will secure the peace with Rome. Shakespeare must have been well aware of James’s plan of reconciliation with Rome and discovered the benefits that would result from such a plan. These benefits are portrayed in the last act of Cymbeline with the fulfilment of the prophecy of the tablet. (5.3.232-44)

James was well aware of the conflict between Catholics and Protestants in England. His mother had been a Catholic and he saw the end that she met. He knew that this battle within the nation would lead to instability in Britain. The only way James could solve this issue was to form some sort of bond of forgiveness between Catholics and Protestants. But he also knew that such a bond could not be limited to Britain. Indeed as a consequence he would have to look outside to help foster the healing between the two religions.

James had two main options in approaching the issue of Catholicism. He could either try to eradicate Catholic influence upon Britain or he could "heal the rift within divided Christendom." James decided to heal Christianity. To do this he would take "Henry VII’s example in taking recourse (through) dynastic marriages of his own children… provided Catholic Kings were prepared to acknowledge the legitimacy of Britain’s Protestant allegiance." (Wickham 99-100) This form of peace and union would become one of the predominant images of Jacobean art. As the playwright of the King’s Men, Shakespeare was involved in this sort of royal patronage. This is shown in the masque scene where Jupiter can be seen as a portrayal of James.

James hoped to pacify his Protestant subjects by having Elizabeth marry with Frederick of Palatine. This union would help to solidify England’s ties with European Protestants, while James could also foster a healing with the Catholic League through a marriage of Henry to a Catholic Princess. James learned from his years of ruling in Scotland that in order to squelch the hostilities between Protestants and Catholics, that he would have to treat Catholics with some respect. Although his initial attempts lead to problems in Scotland it was a valuable learning experience for him. Towards the end the 1590’s he knew that an all out battle with the Catholics would only lead to strengthening hostilities, as well as creating new threats to his reign. (Willson 99-103)

James’s push for inter-religious marriage is a vital part of his ideal union. His "diplomacy in 1611 and 1612 centred in marriage proposals for Prince Henry and Princess Elizabeth." (Willson 280) Just as the union of Imogen with Posthumous shows the possible outcomes of a religious union, Cymbeline’s tribute to Rome displays the necessary need for a peace with the Catholic League in order to secure peace in Britain. One can see that marriage also plays an essential role in the union of the two crowns.

In Cymbeline, Shakespeare is able to focus on the issues of union and peace due to the topicality of the subject. With the accession of James VI and I, in 1603 the Union of the Kingdoms of Scotland and England was forced to the forefront of political discussion. James’s outspoken support for the union of the kingdoms and believed that Scotland and England could become a part of a larger British Nation. He also knew that this would take time and that if he forced the issue it would come to no avail. It can be argued that Shakespeare’s play bolstered support for the union of the kingdoms and created a more positive outlook towards the peace with Spain.

Cymbeline also "centres on the character and foreign policy of James I… it presents dramatically the stillness of the world awaiting the appearance of the Christ-child, but it also pays tribute to James’s strenuous peace-making policy." (Jones 89) During his speech to Parliament in 1604, James painted the picture of himself as a peacemaker and bringer. He talks of a peace both within and without the Isle of Britain, as a result of his accession. He also gives himself the title of King of Great Britain with the intent of stirring up ancient feelings of an ancient name to gain support for his proposed union and peace with Catholicism. (Tanner 34)

In Shakespeare’s Histories he chronicles the development of the English Nation. But even as he is writing those plays there is a political push for the Union of Britain. Throughout the reign of the Tudors there was a push for the union of England and Scotland, but this push was uneventful. When James became King in 1603, a union of the two Kingdoms is achieved through a common Monarch. With James on the throne Shakespeare would be able to expand his idea of an English nation into James’s ideal British nation.

When James was King of Scotland he had a great deal of time to anticipate the problems that would soon be evoked by his reign in England. Although there was a great deal of support for him, there was also a great fear that James would want to follow the trend of continental monarchs and insist on his sovereignty. As King of Scotland, he had a great deal of power. But in England the monarch did not have as much control as the Scottish monarch, so there would be an obvious need for adjustment on James’s part.

In his first speech to Parliament in 1604, JamesVI and I set forth what he deemed where his duties as Monarch. "It was one of the dearest wishes of James I that the personal union between England and Scotland which his accession had established, should be converted into a real union." (Tanner 23) Yet he would need to convince his parliament and his people of this. He claimed that it was divine providence that had made him monarch and therefore it was God’s will that Scotland and England should be united into one kingdom:

What God hath conjoined then, let no man separate. I am the Husband, and all the whole isle is my lawful wife; I am the head and it is my body; I am the shepherd and it is my flock: I hope therefore no man will be so unreasonable as to think that I, that am a Christian King… should be a polygamist and husband to two wives; that I being the head, should have a divided and monstrous body; or that being a shepherd… should have my flock parted in two. (Tanner 27)

However, James was unable to convince his parliament of his desire. In the 1604 speech he asks the parliament to remember the troubles that plagued the country during the Wars of the Roses and the happy union of Richmond, with Princess Elizabeth. And yet, for James, the union of York and Lancaster was nothing compared to his proposed union of Scotland and England. In fact, England was made stronger by the union of seven kingdoms and Wales, and could hope that James’s union would have the same result. (Tanner 25) The union and peace in Cymbeline are examples of the strength that Britain will have when Scotland is joined with England and the ensuing peace with Spain.

In Shakespeare’s Histories we can see his understanding that England was made stronger by the union of York and Lancaster. He helped to support the Tudor myth to justify the sovereignty of the Tudor Monarch’s. James’s intention was to build on the Tudor myth to strengthen the cause of union through his personal union. He had the support of the public at his time of power, which he needed to maintain the control over political affairs, as he had in Scotland, in order to secure a union. James knew that "the English had a strong sense of regal identity, of being subjects of a King to whom they owed loyalty and from whom they derived justice and protection." (Bradshaw 6) James tries to use this regal identity to strengthen his power. But his early attempt was to no avail.

Cymbeline stirs up memories of the ancient British nation and the prophecy that the Island would once again be united under one Monarch. James is the first King to be able to unite the Island, since the times of its ancient and mythical past. Shakespeare "gave mythological support to James’s accession to the English throne", as had many other dramatists and masque writers of the time. They demonstrated that, far from being a break with the past, the arrival of James in London was the fulfilment of the oldest prophecies of the British people." (Jones 90) This is not limited to the union of Scotland and England, but also entailed James’s project for peace with Rome. These aspirations would help James to fulfil his self-imposed motto of Beati Pacifici.

The union of 1603 "did not unite the laws, political institutions, or churches of the two kingdoms and did not therefore create a united kingdom, a united British state, or a single British nation." (Levack 1) Even though James believed that "it was God who had brought together the two great nations within Britain" (Bradshaw 157) he also saw that the union would not come easily. For many centuries, England and Scotland had been at odds and to expect a quick " union of hearts and minds" (Bradshaw 149) after such a history would have been foolish on James’s part.

"James saw himself as the unifier, or rather reunifier, of a land naturally one, but long divided from itself." (Wortham 102) After his early failure, James saw that "if national union was to succeed, it could not be forced, but welcomed by the mass." (Levack 179) If he is to gain support for union he has to convince the public, as well as parliament, of the benefits of union. In order to gain support he would have to avoid the ambiguity of his 1604 speech. James needed to make clear what the union would mean for the people of Scotland and England.

"England and Scotland were national states at the time of the Union of the Crowns." (Levack 171) If the union is to succeed, it would need to be a stronger union between two nations into one state, rather than into one nation. In order to become one nation James would have to reconcile the differences in law and government. This was a tricky proposition, as both nations were hostile to one another. Like the Welsh of nearly three-quarters of a century earlier, the Scots held the English as the enemy and vice versa. The English viewed the Scots as an inferior nation and did not trust the intentions of James. The figure of the Queen in Cymbeline is a parallel to the fears of those opposed to union. Like the Queen, those opposed to James’s plans have their own agendas for the nation that included what was more beneficial to them.

Both Kingdoms feared becoming subordinate to the other. The English feared that since James was a Scottish Monarch he would favour Scotland when it came to finding a common ground in law. James’s claims that he would not favour the Scots did little to remove these fears. Those that did favour the union felt that if Scotland were to be assimilated into England just as Wales was then all would be well. But this would not please the Scots who had a deep sense of national identity. James intention was to bring about a union of two equal kingdoms into one nation, but neither nation saw the other as equal.

At the time of the proposed union "most Englishmen did not see a union with Scotland in the terms outlined by James…(as) a union of equals." (Coward 136) James needed to persuade the English that the union would "bring political stability to the entire island of Britain." (Levack 5) If he could not prove that the Scots were equals he could at least demonstrate the benefits of union. James outlined the benefits as such; that there would be inward peace; that there would be outward security; and that there would be religious stability. The peace of the religions would not only mean that the churches of England and Scotland would be joined, but that James would actively work towards the strengthening of England’s status, as a Protestant state within, but also in continental Europe.

The union in Cymbeline unites the lesser husband to the royal Imogen. Their union can be used as a parallel between the union of England and Scotland. Many people viewed England as a superior nation to Scotland just as Imogen is seen as a wife of higher standing than Posthumous. Cymbeline’s berating of Posthumous (1.1.56) is an echo of many an Englishman’s sentiment towards the Scots at the time of union. Considering that this play was performed in front of the court, we can gather that it had the court as its audience. The union of Posthumous and Imogen shows support for James’s attempt of union.

With his proposed union of laws, James was unable to find satisfactory ground to work on. The Scots feared that English law would replace theirs while the English feared the Scottish influence of James and the possibility that the laws of England would be lost. Another English fear included the possibility that England would have to compensate for the poverty in Scotland and would face an influx of Scots into England. This was enhanced by the prospect of naturalising Scots that were born after James’s accession and even those born before this point. There was also the concern about the union of law in general. Both Kingdoms had an identity rooted in their system of law. This made it difficult for James to convince the opposition that a union would be beneficial. Both nations feared that the union would result in the loss of their national identity. What they failed to see was that James was working for an identity of the whole of the isle.

Through his program of the union of laws James could hope for a long lasting peace between Scotland and England. This process could be furthered by the removal of mutually hostile laws that occurred in 1607 and in 1608 with the proposal that all Scots born after the death of Elizabeth would become naturalised, and therefore recognised as members of the British nation. James pushes this a little further when he giving his blessing to the marriage of Lord Hay, who is of Scottish birth, to a daughter of the English peerage.

The comparison of Posthumous with the union and the peace with Spain depicts the inner worth that Shakespeare displays as being essential to the progress of peace. It was not enough to claim that Posthumous, (i.e., Scotland and the Catholics) have some internal virtue in order to win support for union. No matter what might be said of Posthumous to Cymbeline there was perhaps no way that he could be convinced that this base thing could be joined with his royal daughter. Even if "he sits ‘mongst men like a descended God" (1.7.134,169) he is seen by the King as someone or something unworthy of being married to his daughter and heir to his throne. It is clear to say that he would have preferred if the moronic Cloten had married his daughter for at least he had been of noble/British birth.

In order to convince the English that peace with Spain and a union with Scotland would bring about more benefits than disruptions, James tries to insure that there would be immediate results. With the treaty of 1604 England is be able to breath a little easier knowing that the hostilities with Spain had at least subsided and that war would no longer be a heavy burden to England’s economy. In 1607, James furthered the claims that an English-Scottish union would be beneficial by removing all mutually hostile laws between the two nations. With the removal of these major hostilities, the English economy would be allowed to flourish. These benefits are mirrored in the virtues of Posthumous in support for James.

In the beginning of the play there is a great deal of disorder. Cymbeline is "a misguided King of Britain fostering evil and folly near his throne." (Knight 134) The Queen, Cloten, and others’ ability to mislead him in developing an independent nation separate from its past have undermined his authority. It is those whom he has banished or lost because of his misgoverning who help to save Britain. The marriage of Imogen and Posthumous is also rejected by the King and leads to the loss of his only heir. This is a similar predicament that Britain has found itself in. For many centuries outsiders have influenced the Monarchs, which has lead to constant wars and the disruption of the Nation.

This outside union came in the marriage between his son to a Catholic. Shakespeare uses this anticipated union as a means of justifying James’s desire for peace. Although the marriage would not take place, there were hints that James would be looking to marry Henry to a Catholic. James hoped that such a union would bring about an end to the wars with the Catholic League that England had been involved in since the split. "He also urged his Protestant subjects to marry Roman Catholics and vice versa." (Wickham 100)

By presenting the union of Imogen and Posthumous as a redeeming marriage and the return of the princes to their rightful place, Shakespeare shows his support for both James and his successors. With James’s so hoped for union, Britain would have a chance at prolonged peace: a peace similar to that in Rome, also found at the conclusion of Cymbeline. It is through the Union of England and Scotland and the reconciliation between Catholicism and Protestantism that James planed to achieve his peace for Britain. It is this image of union in Cymbeline that shows "Shakespeare was a whole-hearted supporter of Prince Henry, and of Princess Elizabeth, the phoenix of a new Elizabethan age, leaders of a younger generation" (Yates 59) that James has moulded towards his dreams of union and peace.

"As Cymbeline is physically reunited with his lost children in the closing scene, so Scotland and Wales are mystically reunited with England under James VI and I." (Wickham 110) Shakespeare’s sympathy with James’s project of union and reconciliation show through in this reunion. The danger of civil strife can be avoided if the Monarch is able to act on his impulse as a ruler who desires to bring about a cohesive British nation, as well as an outward peace with the Catholic League.

Considering when this play was written, there is strong evidence that suggests that Cymbeline is a work of patronage. Like the court masques of the period, Cymbeline is a play that is topical. The play’s strong overtones of union show strong support for James’s plan for peace and union. The theme of union and peace in the play is consistent with the political tensions when this play was performed. Therefore this play is a showcase for the policy of union and is sympathetic to the image of James as peacemaker.

When Cymbeline makes his last act at the end of the play by paying tribute to Rome (5.4.460-65) he is creating a peace that is similar to James’s aspiration of peace with the Papacy. Then, at a moment of victory, he, like James, is willing to pay allegiance to Rome in order to avoid further conflict and therefore to bring lasting peace to Britain. (5.4.478-86) Finally, Shakespeare’s restoration in Cymbeline mirrors his understanding of James’s policies toward the same end. Cymbeline was most likely performed for the court because of this. And since it was performed for the court, we can see that Shakespeare was understanding of James’s policies, and to some extent, as shown in the imagery of union in Cymbeline, agreed with them.

 

 

 

 

 

Works Cited

Bradshaw, B. (1996). The British Problem, c. 1534-1707: State Formation in the Atlantic Archipelago. Basingstoke, Macmillan.

Coward, B. (1994). The Stuart Age; England 1603-1714. London, Longman.

Jones, E. (1961). "Stuart Cymbeline." Essays in Criticism 11: 84-99.

Kernan, A. (1995). Shakespeare, the Kings Playwright: Theater in the Stuart Court. London, Yale University Press.

Knight, G. W. (1969). The Crown of Life. London, Methuen.

Levack, B. (1987). The Formation of the British State. Oxford, Claredon Press.

Marcus, L. (1988). Puzziling Shakespeare. London, University of California Press.

Mikalachki, J. (1995). "The Masculine Romance of Roman Britain: Cymbeline and Early Modern English Nationalism." Shakespeare Quarterly 46: 301-22.

Shakespeare, W. (1998). Cymbeline. Ed. Roger Warren. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

Smith, D. L. (1998). A History of the Modern British Isles: 1603-1707. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers.

Tanner, J. R. (1930). Constitutional Documents of the Reign of James I. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Thompson, A. (1991). Person and Office: The Case of Imogen, Princess of Britain. Literature and Nationalism. T. Newey. Liverpool, Liverpool University Press: 76-87.

Wickham, G. (1980). Riddle and Emblem: A Study in the Dramatic Structure of Cymbeline. English Renaissance Studies. J. Carey. New York, Oxford University Press: 94-113.

Willson, D. H. (1956). King James VI and I. London, Alden Press.

Wortham, C. (1996). "Shakespeare, James I and the Matter of Britain." English 45: 97-120.

Yates, F. A. (1975). Shakespeare's Last Plays: A New Approach. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul.

Back