Chapter One
Introduction:
With the advent of Protestantism and its influence on Renaissance England we can gain a greater understanding of the literature of the time. Theology had a great impact on the drama of the time. Even in Medieval times morality plays were solely based on biblical allegories. During the Renaissance drama become a more popular way of expressing theological doctrine then through scholarly writings. The stage became a place where the issues of theology could be brought before the public, and expressed through drama.
Hamlet is a play that shows us the idea of religious despair as it would have been understood at the time. To grasp this concept we can look at the play through a more contemporary lens. Existentialism is strikingly similar on the issue of despair that we find in the writings of Luther and Calvin. By looking at Hamlet through the eyes of existentialism we can see that there is a great deal going on in the drama that we might not have noticed at first glance. We discover that the issue of religious despair is an underlying theme of Hamlets melancholy, and see him make the jump from the world of Man to the world of religion.
I will be paying a great deal of attention to the character of Hamlet while using the text of the play to support my thesis that religious despair was a much discussed and contemplated topic of the time. This makes a great deal of sense considering that Existentialism is a philosophical approach to the condition of Man. Although I feel that the play shows this condition in a well represented way I will show how it is the particular function of the main characters to express what is now called existential despair or anguish. I will also show how this issue is not just isolated to Hamlet but can also be found and explore in Macbeth.
In order to see the concepts of existentialism played out in the drama’s, we need to look at other characters to support the connection with it and renaissance thought. In Laertes we see an ethical hero who reverts back to the aesthetic. In Polonius we see someone who is unwilling to embrace the ethical. Ophelia seems to make the leap to the religious, but it is difficult to prove this. In Macbeth we see Macduff embrace the role of the tragic hero and Macbeth as the aesthete who chooses to ignore the ethical in order to fulfil his desires.
Since this paper focuses on the existential struggles of Hamlet I believe it is be necessary to describe my understanding of the philosophy. This will come later in the paper. I do wish to clarify now that I have chosen to use a Christian approach to look at Hamlet but I have also included a brief discussion of the atheistic side of the philosophy and applied it to the play. Since the issue of religion and Christianity is relevant to the drama and literature of the Renaissance it would be absurd to avoid it. I have decided to use what is sometimes termed the atheistic sense of Existentialism as an alternative approach because of its popularity and relevance to the issue of facing Existential despair and how the individual deals with it.
Critical Background:
When confronted with the vast material on Hamlet and Macbeth it is difficult to find any consensus from the critics. With Hamlet there seem to be at least two main streams of critical approach to the play. With Macbeth there is always the underlying theme of evil. I have found some critics who have moved beyond this main theme and concentrate a bit more on the psychology of Macbeth the character. Although I do not whole-heartedly agree with this approach I will use it as a catalyst for an existential approach. By understanding the psychology of the characters I will show how each one deals with the existential abyss.
My approach towards Hamlet follows the tradition of the Romantics, through to Bradley and beyond. This approach looks at the character of Hamlet in relation to the play. In taking an existential approach to the play I thought it would be necessary to look at the Romantics. They offer a theory on the reasons for Hamlet’s delay in action, which is relevant here. Bradley develops their ideas a bit further, and gives us an account of the melancholy of Hamlet. I believe that these critics do not pay enough attention to Hamlet as a play in relation to Hamlet’s condition. Throughout the text we see instances where there are many things that seem to support, and are involved in, the same thing as Hamlet. What Polonius says to Laertes "to thine own self be true" is a prime example of this. I will discuss this in Chapter two in a bit more detail.
In his two essays on Hamlet, Bradley pays a great deal attention to the Romantics. He tries to explain away the inaction in different terms then the Romantics. Goethe sees Hamlet as "a lovely, pure, noble, and most moral nature, without the strength of nerve which forms a hero, (who) sinks beneath a burden which it cannot bear." (Bate, 306) Bradley sees a much stronger character who is able to do such bloody deeds and face such inner conflicts that are typical of a hero (84-5). Instead of seeing Hamlet as a ‘costly jar’ that should have born only flowers and incapable of such heavy deeds, Bradley sees Hamlet as someone who is able to over come his inner conflicts and do what is asked of him by the Ghost. (85)
Bradley also focuses in on what he calls the Schlegel/Coleridge school. He points out that this school focuses in on Hamlet as a "tragedy of reflection" (87) where Hamlet delays because he is irresolute in how to act as a result of over speculation. This is seen in both Coleridge’s and Schlegel’s response to the character of Hamlet. Bradley refutes this by going on to state that this school of thought ignores the emotional state of Hamlet, and focuses in on only his delay as a defect of an over active mind. (87)
As Bradley notes the Romantics are one of the most referred to schools of criticism when it comes to Hamlet. The views of the romantics are the key to making the connection between Existentialism and renaissance thought. It is through their statements that later scholars have tried to come to an understanding of the psychological state of Hamlet and explain why he delays in exacting the call for revenge by the ghost.
Bradley is the culmination of the past and the door to a new understanding of Hamlet the character. He takes the Romantic criticism and tries to connect it to the explanation of how people in the renaissance would have viewed Hamlet. This sort of historical approach is the gateway to understanding Hamlet’s melancholy and the connection between his antic disposition, delay, and inner conflict with existential despair.
Bradley’s attempt to explain the type of melancholy that Hamlet experienced opens up the possibility of discovering a deeper connection with melancholy and despair. He describes Hamlet’s melancholy in terms that are similar to Kierkegaard’s despair. There is a loose of hope and a seemingly endless inner conflict that is a result of this melancholy. In targeting the term melancholy, Bradley has brought the modern audience into the mindset of the renaissance audience.
This melancholy is not simply a form of depression, but is related to the conflict that Hamlet faces. He has lost his father, seen his mother marry rather quickly, and is now thrust into the position where he must decide whether or not to obey the ghost’s command. Faced with all of these conflicts Hamlet turns into the prototypical melancholic man that we find in the poetry or Breton. There appears to be no hope and no release from his inner struggles.
Bradley progressed from the Romantic’s view of Hamlet as a gentle creature thrust into a situation that he can not handle. Instead Hamlet is a tragic hero who must overcome his inner conflicts and the ethical dilemma that faces him. Bradley depicts him as a strong character that must overcome his melancholy in order to solve his ethical problems. Only when he does this will he be able to do the ghosts bidding. Bradley explains how Hamlet’s melancholy accounts for his delay in revenging his father and for Hamlet’s recognition of this delay (101-07).
The vast majority of criticism on Macbeth pays particular attention to the underlying theme of evil. Coupled with this is the analysis of Macbeth’s actions. Macbeth is introduced is introduced in the play as a brutal character but also one of epic proportions (Long, 31). His actions in battle show the audience his innate ability to act. When it comes time for him to act out his desire to become King we see that this ability to act is not always a sign of epic character, but of a more blind determination based on self-gratification.
There is also much talk about the events that lead up to the killing of Duncan and the ramifications of this deed. While discussing Macbeth’s progress from hero to regicide many critics focus on the prophecy of the three witched and the change it brings about. Once Macbeth has heard the claim that he will be King his mind is set on the idea. "He has lost the simple, whole-hearted loyalty exemplified by the wounded officer."(Elliott,39)
Bradley points out in his essay on Macbeth that it is evil that pervades the action of Macbeth. It is not that evil is merely present in the play but that Macbeth is conscious of his evil deed. "His mind is ‘full of scorpions.’ He cannot sleep. He ‘keeps alone’, moody and savage. All that is within him does condemn itself for being there’." He is filled with a sense of dread at what he has done. His vision of Banquo shows us that he was suffering from a guilty conscience over his actions. That is what makes Macbeth a play that reveals part of the human condition. We get to see the inner sufferings of a scoundrel.
He has ventured in the world of evil and is at first frightened by his actions. But these fears can easily overcome by committing more deeds and therefore pushing Macbeth deeper into evil as a way of severing himself from normal ethical human behaviour (Cunnigham, 40). As he severs himself from the ethical world he is becoming a villain. He is also realising the possibilities that he can act on. If he acts out his evil impulses we see that he is doing so for his own ends. And as we see this we also see that Macbeth recognises his descent into evil.
Existentialism and Renaissance thought:
In looking at these plays through twentieth century eyes it is essential that we do not lose the historical perspective of morals and philosophy. Existentialism is a rather modern Philosophy. Even though some would like to connect it with such thinkers as Blaise Pascal or Montaigne it is necessary to see the difference between the roots of the philosophy and its mature state.
Even if the seeds for this philosophy were present during the renaissance it was certainly not as developed as it is now. During the renaissance, and particularly the time surrounding the writing and performing of these plays, there a few approaches to what is now term as existential despair. I will be focusing in on a few of the explanations that are used to describe the psychological state of theological despair that is similar to that of existential despair.
After doing this it will be essential to look at these explanations in connection with existential philosophy. I will be pursuing two main areas of existential thought. One is the religious dogma of Kierkegaard, and the other is the self styled philosophy of Sartre. Even though the explanations for despair that we find in the renaissance differ from the contemporary outlook on this psychological state there are many similarities between them and existential philosophy that give credence to looking at these plays through an existential lens.