DOES THE MEDIA INFLUENCED US
DECISION TO INTERVENE SOMALIA'S
HUMANITARIAN CRISIS
The following article is an excerpt of a speech I gave to International Students Club at Carleton University. Hope you enjoy.. If you need further info. Please ask through email.
INTRODUCTION:bR> Media has been a major player in the shaping foreign policy of modern states, particularly democratic ones. (Yoel, 1986:134) Many major decisions taken by world leaders have been influenced by media reports. Not only media influences state foreign policy, but it also mobilizes public opinion in pressuring the government to take decision on particular foreign policy issue that they would not have taken otherwise.(Thimmosch 1985:5) Unfortunately, decision makers are influenced to some degree by public opinion, and the public is certainly influenced by the report and comments of the media. In the case of UN intervention in Somalia, media has play a significant role in the decision of the United States of America to send its troops to Somalia. Former US Secretary of Defence wrote " We would never have gone to somalia without the media report.(Weinberger 1993:35). Petter Jennings of ABC evening news reported "The United States intervention in Somalia under-scores how the information age is changing American diplomacy."
This paper examines the influence media had on the United States government's decision to intervene Somalia's humanitarian crisis. The paper will look at the reasons as to why US media devoted unprecedented full time coverage on Somalia situation during before and after US intervention. The paper will also attempt to investigate the theory of news worthiness and its application on Somalia situation.
NEWS WORTHINESS:
For better or for worst, the media today play an increasingly influential role in the formation of public policies, not just in North America but throughout the free world. Ben H. Bagdikian (1985:2) argues that, not only media influences government decision on particular issue or public opinion, but they also produce news and information that helped create the country's perception of the world. Referring to American public, he pointed out that " Americans, like most people, get images of the world from their newspapers, magazines radios, television....The mass media become the authority at any given moment for what is true and what is false, what is reality and what is fantasy, what is important and what is trivial. However, by and large people do not accept news report uncritically, but newscasts still have a lot of influence on the political "agenda" that is , the media report certain events and not others, and what they report determines what becomes a matter of public debate.(Thimmosch 1985:5) To discuss the power of the media, several questions needed to be addressed: How media decide to report particular issue or situation which can force state or government to act on the bases of media report? Does the media represent general public opinion or media elites?
Media's decision to report news (all kinds of news) is influenced by various factors such as; economic, public interest, clarity of the issues and overall the effect news will have on reputation of the news organizations.However, News organizations tended to report the news people most interested, regardless its morality and ethics.(Yoel 1986:46) The more people interests the more likely the news to be reported. Sociologists Galtung and Range pointed out " The more meaningful the signal the more probable that it will regarded as worth listening to."
Many Sociologists argue that reporting news depend on the interest of the news organizations rather than public interests. W. Lance Bennett (1985:133) argues that news is neither made nor reported primarily for the purpose of providing citizens with useful political information. Both journalism and politicians are concern immediate goals than the problem of how to give people an accurate and useful picture of the world in which they live in. Experiences shows that media helped for the formations of the government policies. In may instances government decision are being influenced by the ways in which the issues are reported. (Forbes Jr, 1993:4) Thus most news that are exposed on public have always being influenced by interest groups, which benefit the outcome of the reported news. Bennett believes that news is shaped not by public interest but by journalistic and political factors. MEDIA MONOPOLY
Discussion of the media power goes back to the early theorists, such as Karl Marx, Waber etc. Marx whose views is known as anti-capitalist saw the Western press as a central elements of what he called (Uberbau) superstructure of the capitalist society, in which the ruling elites used to legitimize and maintain their political power.(Alschull, 1984:92) It was his conviction that Western press is a part of the government institution to control the masses. Since his theory of social class argues that those who own the means of production have an ultimate power on the society. In other words, the bourgeoisie who owns means of production enjoy political and economic power at the expensive of the majority of the working class. Thus media is means of production own by view people and use majority of the people. To him, owners of the media serve the interests of the ruling class.
Although his argument was discredited by various scholars, the role media play in Western societies is one that reflects what Marx contend a century ago. The media has become a power machine that is used to control masses in Western societies. For example, we are socialized through the media, we see the world through TV scream, we buy things only when we see on the TV or in the paper. Our behaviour are shaped by the media.(MacCombs 1979:125) Though media has such huge influence on our day to day life, it has become a commodity in which people who own the media organizations produce what ever that brings profit to their organizations.
In his book entitled New:The Politic of Illusion Bennett (1983:133) discusses the power of the media and how it shapes the government policies. To the contrary of the popular beliefs that the power of the American Democracy rests with the people, Leader take cues from the people and express their voice politically. He argues that people's voice have been suppressed through the media. Political leaders were given unlimited access to the media power, media continue to repot the day to day activities of our political leader. It is hardly that a day passes what out hearing the name of the prime minister. Most of the Political leaders use the media to impose their political will on the people. As Bennett pointed out.....
Leaders have usurped enormous amounts of political power and reduced papular control over the political system by using the media to generate support, compliance, and just plain confusion among the public. People may be given some range of choice by the ruling elite, but the substance of that choice is determined more by the politicians and the media than people.
In modern world it has become apparent that, power depend on so much on the complete control of information that information is often manufactured to suit the political designs of its users.(Bennett 1983:134) Thus the users as known (interest groups) have increasingly dominate in the media business with the cooperation of the ruling elites. In Democratic countries, ruling elites, known as "elected officials" have always associated with the big influential business executives except few people, In North America, particularly, United States of America, no political official run for the presidency without having the endorsement of the influential business groups.(Findley, 1983: 234)
Bagdikian argues that political power, have always recognized that to control the public, they must control public influential information, the possession of the information networks is a possession of the eyes of the nation. As a result all multinational corporation have acquired the major news networks in the US in order to keep their economic empire intact. According to Bagdikian By 1980s the majority of all major American media, newspapers radios and televisions were controlled by fifty corporations. The media industry, at least in United
States has a huge financial empire, For example, twenty corporation out of the fifty corporation control more than half of the 61 million daily newspapers sold every day, and make annually over $12 billion sale revenues. (bagdikian, 1993:10)
Most of these fifty corporation interlocked with other major industries and few international banking institutions. Their financial interests and investments goes beyond American border. According to Bugdikian, there is no country in the world in which a subsidiary of the fifty media companies does not have a significant investments. Therefore, American's media empire influences not only domestic policies of the US but intentional investments, international economic transactions and overall international security.
As I mentioned above the majority of the media corporation have interlocked financially with influential international banking as well as multi-national cooperation, For example, The most influential paper in America TheNew York Times interlocks with various cooperations, such as IBM, Ford, Sun Oil American Express Carter Oil etc. The influence of those corporation have on the media can be seen the ways in which their news reported. Bagdikian sited one instance that represents the influence of those corporations has on reporting issues that treated their industries.. He pointed out......
In 1974 the Publisher of the times, Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, was told by Henry Ford II that federal safety and pollution standards would increase car prices. According to Zulzberger "I said it certainly would affect the advertising coming into our news-papers. I said I would set up a forum" Sulzberger sent a letter to major news paper publishers announcing a meeting with ford officials, adding. " I would strongly urge you to bring with you your editorial page editor and your business editor, for the story that messrs. Ford and Icocca wish to tell goes far beyond the scope of an 'automotive story: As a result the associated Press, United Press International, Dow Jones, Reuters, and the Washington Post-Los Angeles Times wires carried Ford and Icocca's presentation urging against the federal and safety pollution controls.
The above example illustrates how big cooperation influences on news reporting. It is hardly difficult to find any newspaper, televisions that operates without the influences of business elites.
Given its financial success, it is not necessary for the media to reflect the views of the public. Instead of looking at the interest of the public, it has become political transmission lines to the people. Bennett argues that media is successful profit making enterprise which has little incentive to provide an objective and adequate news information that reflect people's need and expectation. Professor Elmere E. Cornwell, Jr of Brown University and the author of presidential Leadership of press and politics of public opinion, wrote twenty three years ago that media is not more than seller that sells items that sellable regardless its quality and its ethics. He pointed out..
........the press "role" in reality i seen to be far more active when examined closely. As seller of news, it seeks out material to purvey, focusing on certain types of "news" that have proven most readily saleable. Thus, the role of the press as envisioned here is activist in part and self-serving in part.
[lee, 1979:63)
Let us turn now to our main propose of the paper which is the role of media played by the decision of the US government to send its troops to Somalia. One can't understand why news media organizations devoted unprecedented coverage on somalia unless one understand how Somalia's humanitarian crisis has evolved over the years. Next section discusses Somalia's history and how the media get involved Somalia's crisis.
BRIEF HISTORY OF SOMALIA:
Somalia is located in the horn of Africa. its population is estimated between 7-8 million people. The Somalia people formed out of the combination of African and Arab influences. (Lewis, 1962:32) In the South, the people are mostly farmers and nomadic pastoralists in the north. In the colonial area, the part of the country become a much more neglected British protectorate called Somaliland and the South fell under the control of the Italians. (Samater, 1990:13) There was an army resistance in the late nineteenth century by led the religiously inspires called Derwish Movement, and independence of Somalia was achieved in 1960. By the end of the colonial area, oil was found in the Central and Northern part of the country.(Samater:1987:24). But unfortunately, it was not explored due to rejection of the Arab rich countries who sow somalia as a threat to their rich oil industry.
At the end of the decade the army seized the power with promised of egalitarian development.(Lawrence, 1962:24) but the leader of the army General Barre created one of the world's most brutal dictatorship. The Barre regime was financed by both supper powers, former Soviet Union and the United States of America. The report made available dec 4/93 by Congressional Research Services found that the United States of America delivered $154 million worth of weapons, pare parts and military equipment to Somalia from 1981 to 1991. (AP Dec 1/93) In 1970's when Somalia was allied with the Soviet Union, it received $270 million worth of weapons from Moscow an its allies. At the end of the cold war, Somalia was no longer considered a prime strategic location and was left with nothing but deteriorating National economy and political uncertainty. Finally, in 1991 the dictatorship was ousted from the power and Somalia began to disintegrate as a nation. HUMANITARIAN CRISIS AND MEDIA INVOLVEMENT:
To understand fully the role Media played in the decision to intervene somalia, it is necessary to discuss how Somali's
humanitarian tragedy had involved over the years. When Barre (dictator) was a finally driven from power January 1991.(Nayeri, 1992:32) the United Nations and nearly all foreign embassies including United States were evacuated their staff members from the country. Somalia was left in the cold war army with no government in charge. Even though the Media always interests in covering overthrow of head of state, coups and political assassination, The over throw of the Somali's dictator had received a little coverage from the Western media. As matter of facts they began reporting the situation weeks after the Coup.
The international community apparently lost interest in Somalia the moment the Siad Barre regime collapsed. Because of the extensive coverage given on Yugoslavia crisis, international attention was focusing on former Yugoslavia, (Thorsell 1992:10) International community has acted decisively, by dispatching peacekeeping troops to help open Sarajevo air port for relief flights. The United Nations's role in former Yugoslavia was expanding, while thousands of Somalia people were dying for lack of food and other man made calamities.(Rauter, dec/92)
In may 1992, the Secretary General of the United Nations Boutros Ghali had managed a cease fire between warring factions in Somalia. In April 1992, the same year he asked the security council to send 500 U.N peacekeeping farces to observe the cease fire and dispatch the food to the needy people. His proposal was rejected by the security Council, because of the cost of the peacekeeping. While the discussion was taking place in the headquarters of the United Nations in New York, Somali Children were dying thousands a day. The media, particularly US media kept public from knowing the humanitarian tragedy unfolding Somalia. No news reporter was sent to Somalia to cover the human tragedy that was unfolding Somalia.
However, the United states of America, which supported by sending 14,000 troops to Balkans at the cost of $500 million dollars, had apposed UN move to send Somalia at the cost of $20 million. The Bush administration excused this by arguing that US congress would not support another costly peace keeping mission in election years. The UN staff members in Mogadishu were convinced that only 500 troops could stop the civil war and bring stability back to the country. But the US government were not interested in bring peace to Somalia people, she rather wanted Somalia get deep into a economic and social crisis in which American will be asked to intervene Somalia militarily. Expressing how Somalia was ignored by the world communities. Thorsell (1992:11) of Global and Mail wrote.. "..no wonder many somalis conclude that they were better off during the cold war, when the country's strategic position in the Horn of Africa brought it supper power from. alternately, Moscow and Washington." he concluded " A pawn in the old world order, Somalia deserves better in the new"
By the end of june, In his 40 pages report, the secretary General has criticized the council of not doing enough to ease suffering in Somalia. he said "If the Security council continue to concentrate its attention and resources to minor problems, this would be at the expense of the organization's ability to help resolve cruel and dangerous conflicts elsewhere eg Somalia" (AP, Jan 1992) Despite of the warning of the international committee of the Red Cross, that millions of people could die, if aid is not arrive immediately, the Security council continue to ignore the humanitarian crisis in Somalia.
As the director of the international Conciliation Service of the Mennonite central committee argued that, The unwillingness of the international Community to intervene Somalia's humanitarian crisis is resulted from the lack of media coverage. In an article entitled The Land that Fell off the radar Screen, which was published in Global and Mail, he said " As the media ignore the somali situation, it has fallen from our radar." The early media coverage could have pressured the various government to act and save thousands of Somalis.
After 1992 US presidential election, United States media began extensive coverage about Somali's humanitarian crisis. The media coverage devoted to Somalia has generated public support for US action on Somalia. As we have discussed proceeding section US government had expressed reluctance to commit its Somali's humanitarian crisis. After extensive coverage on Somalia US began to intervene Somalia's humanitarian crisis. One can argue that America would have never gone to Somalia if not for television exposure. Seeing widespread famine provokes infinitely more emotional than listening or reading about it. When the painful images of starving Somalis began to appear on North American Television, the American public reacted very generously by making donation and pressuring their representatives in Washington to take actions to ease Somalia's humanitarian suffering. Former United States Secretary of Defence, who now contributes to Forces magazine wrote " The United States was virtually forced to intervene in Somali because of the attention devoted to Somalia's humanitarian crisis." During this humanitarian crisis, Somalia received more coverage than Russia, China and Europe combined. As a result American public gave overwhelming support for the president to take strong measure to stop human catastrophe that was unfolding in Somalia.
However, Some International experts and News magazines argue that, News coverage was not the only factor behind US intervention but other factors may have involved. The Newsweek magazine stated.......
The painful images of starving Somalia children began to appear several months ago on "60"minutes program, the cover time magazine. But didn't have much direct effect. The picture generated sympathyand some contribution but not goundwell for military intervention.[NewsWeek. Dec 21, 93]
The United States of America claims that the somalia intervention was purely based on humanitarian reasons. The mission was conducted in the name of morality. According to the US government, the US move was based on humanitarian which was addressing a situation that was not threatened American National Security and in which the US has no vital interest. It was, as president Bush said, a purely humanitarian action. His presidential address with the American public he said " Our mission is humanitarian ....when Somalia children are starving to death...America hurts... America must act..." (Eric Randsdel, 1992:14).
If the US intervention in Somalia was a humanitarian mission, than why not in Bosnia. Bosnia has been suffering the same of more horrible human tragedy than Somalia and the US government seem to move away from humanitarian crisis in Bosnia. The reluctance of the United States of America to take the some action can be explained into three reasons which I discuss letter in a great length of detail: First Bosnia has no natural resources in which the US could benefited direct or indirectly. In Somalia, the well known US petroleum company UNICO has found oil in different part of Somalia. Secondly, according to Lost Angeles Time , for long time US government used Somalia sea cost as nuclear waste dump. Thirdly, unlike Somalia intervention, American public were not convinced that Americans could stop the atrocities that is taking place in Former Yugoslavia. Although media covered Bosnian crisis, little emphasize were put on the role of the US government to put the Bosnian atrocities to end. In the Somali case, evening news reporter brought the experts that explaining how US troops could be used to stop the Somali sufferings. There was also live picture from Somalia, a country that has no functioning power.
Although Somali's children were starving for three years before US forces landed in Somalia, no media expressed in reporting Somalia humanitarian crisis. It was only after Somalia blunged into humanitarian catastrophe, when the media began extensive news coverage about Somalia. The question one may asked is why media, particularly US media waited for so long to cover Somalia' humanitarian crisis? and what is the motives behind the unprecedented coverage that was given to Somalia? Number important factors may have been contributed to the Media interest in reporting Somali. Among other thing, economic interest was the major reason behind unprecedented media interest in Somalia humanitarian crisis. Next section discusses in details the three points mentioned above.
As I have discussed at the beginning of the paper, most media organizations are inter-lock financial interest with international banking institutions, multinational corporations. Although its difficult to prove, there is a widespread agreement among scholars of Somali that US government want Somalia to disintegrate socially and economically, so that international community will invite the US government to take over Somalia. With help of the media US government had succeeded in achieving that.
Gen. Colin powell approvingly called operation restore hope " a
paid political advertisement" for maintaining the bush/clinton
$1.4 trillion four year military budget. The bush administration
were looking a way that he could convince the congress that
military need will grow after cold war and their budget should be
increased, and sending US troops to Somali will demonstrate the
needs to maintain US budget post cold war. On the hand, US
intervention will create jobs in the US. As a result, number of
highly respected corporations such as Roots, Sun Oil were given
a contacts to provide technical and logistic support for the
multinational troops in Somalia.
Although the reasons for the U.S military presence in Somalia are
multifaced, the need of Europe, Japan, Russia and U.S to dump the
waste of industrial production somewhere must certainly be
considered among the important factors, especially as opposition
to toxic dumping and incinerators is congealing into massive
political movements within the countries (home regions).
Its important to understand that media's coverage on Somalis
crisis was not purely humanitarian driven but rather economic. The
ways in which media covered Somalia's news can explain their
economically driven interests in reporting Somali crisis. It
objectives were to generate public sympathy to the Somalia crisis,
which in turn give the government legitimacy to send US army. Some
of the headlines of the major news papers and magazines include..
US News and World Repot wrote " Death and Despair is Somalia" The
Global and mail " If Sarajevo Why not Somalia"; The Ottawa Citizen
" Canadians make contacts" The New York Times " US delivers Tons
of Food to Somalia"; Fobres " We cannot allow Hunger"; Time
Magazine "Restoring Hope"; Guardians " Famine Stalks Somali
Residents". As above titles suggests Somalia's report was not a
news report but it was rather a campaign to pressure the public
to accept US military involvement in Somalia.
In Short, As I begin in this paper, media has been a major player
in the shopping foreign policy of modern states, particularly
democracies one. In the case of Somalia, media not only play role
in formulating US policy in Somalia but it also persuaded
American public to support that policy which they formulated. The
lesson one can learn Somalia's coverage is that no can
characterized what is news ? and what is worth in reporting except
the news makers (politicians) and the corporates that own the news
organizations. On the other hand, Whatever provide financial gain
for the owners of the news organization can became news regardless
public interest. I am convinced that the only reason that make
Somalia's mission news worth to report was an economic one.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Altschull, J H 1984. Agent of Power: the role of the news media
in human affairs. (New York. London: Longman)
Alexander Cockburn 1992 " Somali's crisis "The Nation
Ben, H. Bagdikian 1983. The Media Monopoly(Boston: Beacon Press
Boston)
Banner Ray 1993. " Why We Went "Mother Jones. March/April.
Bakogeorge Peter 1992. " Canadians Make Contacts "The Ottawa
Citizen. December 17.
Brain, MacNair. 1988. Images of the Enemy: Reporting the news
cold war. ( London. New York: Routledge)
Black, J E 1992.Politics and the News: political functions of the
mass media. (Butterworth)
Caspar, W. Weinberger. 1993. " Why We Are There?" Forces. January
18.
Cohen Yeol 1986 Media Diplomacy
Eric, Randsdel 1992. " Operation Restore Hope"U.S News & World
Report. December 14.
Eaman, R. 1987. The Media Society: basic issues and controversies.
(ButterWorths)
Forbes Jr S. Malcolm 1993 "Somalia-Symptom of the New World
Order" Forbes January 4.
Jackson, Makiu. 1992. " The Crisis That World Ignored: The UN
in Somalia and West Africa. World Press Review October.
Janes Perlez 1992 " U.S Delivers Tons of Food to Somalia"
The News York Times. Augost 29.
King 1992 " Somalia " The Ottawa Citizen. September 2.
Leslie Crowford 1993. " Why are U.S soldiers in Somalia"
Financial Times (london) June 12, 1993.
Laurence Margaret 1962. A Tree For Poverty(Canada MacMaster
University, Library Press)
Lederach Paul John 1991. " The Land That Fell off the radar
screen" The Global and mail Nov 7.
Los Angels Times, December 2, 1992. As reported in war Watch
Bulletin, January 12993.
Mark Fineman 1993. "The Oil Stakes Factor in Somalia"
Maxwell, E. MacCombs & Lee B. Becker. 1979.Using Mass
Communication Theory. (New Jersy; Printice -Hull)
Michael, Schudson. 1978. Discovering The News: A social History
of America News papers: (New York> Basic Books, In., Publishers)
Norman Kempster 1992 " U.S Black leaders favour Longer Mission"
Los angeles Time. Dec 1, 1992
Nick, Thimmesch. 1985. A liberal Media Elite?(Washington D.C.
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Philip, Guant. 1990. Choosing The News: the profit factor in the
news selection. (New York. London: Greenwood Press) Richard, W. Lee 1970.Politics & The Press(Washington D.C:
Acropolis Books)
Robinson Anna 1992. " Waiting American "U.S News and World
report Dec 7.
Sam Kiley 1992. " Strangers in a Strange Land" U.S News and World
Report. Dec 21.
Samater Said 1982. Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism (New York
Campridge University Press)
The Christian Science Monitor. July 7, 1992
W, Lance Bennett. 1983. News: The politics of illusion.(New York.
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Associated Press Nov 11, 01 1993
Petter Jennings statement cannot be substantiated the date
that he made that statement. I personnally recorded on my VCR but
forget to mark the date for future referenceces. However, the type
is avialable, if required for varification.
Due to experienced knowledge presented in this paper, many
of the arguments I have put forward cannot be substantiated.
However, I made an attempt to substaintiated as much as I can. It
is difficult to collected proper sources when you writing unfolding
events such as Somalia. Most of the litareture avialable can only
be found in the form of News report.
In class you have mentioned number of reasons as to why news
is reported. You emphasize the clearity of the issues, such as
money etc. In this reaserch paper I have found that clearity is
something that depend on the way in which the issue reported. The
news organization can make any issues clear as long as it meets its
norrowly defined interests.
Bennett argument of what he called journalistic and political
factors cannot be dicussed in details due a limited space in the
paper. But for further explanation can be seen in his book entitled
NEWS: The Politics of Illusion: pages 131 - 140.
There is a disagreement among scholars of Somali history as
to why international organizatuion decline to expolore Somali's
oil. Some argue that Somali's political instability kept foriegn
from investing Somalia's oil, while others argue that the Barre
regime (former president) rejected oil exploration.
In 1990 when the Romanian dictator was over thrown,
Extensive coverage were given by the Western media, particularly,
US media. As member of Somalia community here in Ottawa, we reiled
for information pertaining from the Somaliua, a rare phone calls.
Again I can't substaintiate this claim. However, all the
indications show that such conspiracy was existed.