1. Summary

Agricultural systems will change as the environment changes e.g. when the sustainability of a production system is no more guaranteed or if infrastructure improves and/or there is an increase of effective income. This study investigated the importance of seed production for small scale farmers in rural Bolivia and their importance in respect to rural development processes of agricultural systems.

Three villages in the tropical lowlands in the region of Yapacaní, in which small scale farmers produce seeds, were investigated in a case study with regard to socio-economic factors such as household- and income categories and in respect to economic factors of the kind of production such as rice, maize, animal husbandry and seed production with special emphasis to Pueraria phaseoloides (kudzú) and Arachis pintoi.

There are different agricultural systems in the region, being in the process of change. The households of small scale farmers in the surveyed region mainly belong to a shifting cultivation production system, to agricultural production systems with the component of animal husbandry, or to intensive production systems, mainly based on dairy farming. It turned out that shifting cultivation, in which farmers often have liquidity problems, is not a sustainable system in the surveyed region. Seed production of Arachis pintoi and Pueraria phaseoloides is the most important production system, since farmers obtain effective income, because of high capital productivity. In long term, the farmers invest in permanent crops and animal husbandry. Those farmers who are solvent reduce seed production, due to low family manpower productivity, and restrict their production mainly to intensive dairy farming.

Seed production of Arachis pintoi and Pueraria phaseoloides is an essential component in the development processes and -possibilities of small scale farmers, using the shifting cultivation system. However, due to high family manpower productivity, in dairy farming, farmers will change the production system as soon as possible. This is achieved by the high effective income and high capital productivity of the seed production. It follows from this that seed production of Arachis pintoi and Pueraria phaseoloides must be oriented on shifting cultivation transition zones where small scale farmers have problems of liquidity.

 

 

Resumen

Sistemas agricolas se modifican si se cambia el medio ambiente, por ejemplo si la sostenibilidad de un sistema de producción no esta garantizado, o si se mejora la infraestructura y/o si hay un crecimiento de ingreso efectivo (margen bruto). Ese estudio investigo la importancia de la producción de semillas forrajeras de los pequeños productores en una parte rural de Bolivia y su importancia al respecto dentro del proceso del desarrollo rural de los sistemas agricolas. Tres communidades en la zona tropical de la región Yapacaní, en que pequeños productores producen semillas forrajeras, fueron investigado en la vista de factores económicos de la producción de arroz, maiz, ganaderia y de la producción de semillas forrajeras con la atención especial a Pueraria phaseoloides y Arachis pintoi.

En la región hay differentes sistemas agricolas que se encuentran en un proceso de modificacción. Los pequeños productores en la región investigada, pertenecen principalmente al sistema agricola migratorio, o un sistema agricola con una componente de ganaderia y un sistema agricola intensivo basada a la lecheria mecanisada. Se resultó que el sistema agricola migratorio, en que los productores tienen problemas de liquidación, no es sostenible en la región investigada, porque los recursos forestales naturales son limitados.

La producción de semillas forrajeras de Arachis pintoi y Pueraria phaseoloides es la mas importante en la región investigada, donde que los productores se pueden obtener un alto ingreso effectivo, por la alta productividad del capital en ese sistema de producción. En vista temporal los productores invertieron en cultivas perennes y ganaderia. Los productores que son solventes reducen la producción de semillas forrajeras, por motivo de la baja productividad de mano de obra familiar, y restringen su producción principalmente a ganaderia de leche intensiva. La producción de semillas de Arachis pintoi y Pueraria phaseoloides es un componente essencial en el proceso del desarrollo de los pequeños productores que usan el sistema agricola migratorio, sin embargo, van a cambiar su sistema agricola migratorio lo mas pronto posible por el motivo de alta productividad de mano de obra en el sistema intensivo de ganaderia de leche. Ese cambio puede ser conseguido con el ingreso effectivo y la alta productividad de capital de la producción de semillas forrajeras.

De eso resulta, que la producción de semillas de Arachis pintoi y Pueraria phaseoloides tiene que orientarse a zonas transitorios del sistema agricola migratorio, donde los pequeños productores tienen problemas de liquididad.

2. Introduction

Change of environment induces a change of agricultural systems. Factors are natural resources, means of production, manpower, needs of the population and others. In this development process production systems are of different importance. It is assumed that households strive towards sustainability and stability. In this respect production systems that promise stability and sustainability gain on importance for households and production systems that seem not to be sustainable loose importance, respectively.

The seed production company SEFO in Bolivia entrusts farmers of the region Yapacaní with the production of seed from tropical forage legumes. Farmers use this possibility for some years to a great extent. However, after several years the interest to produce seeds decreases. The opportunity to take part in decisions in the SEFO company does not find the expected response in the same extent as it is the case in a similar structured dairy production company. This study was implemented to determine the importance of seed production in context to development and processes of change in agricultural systems in rural Bolivia in the region of Yapacaní.

Agricultural systems in this region were investigated before from Rolf Wacholtz (1996), employee of the consulting company Institut fuer Projektplanung – GTZ. Yet, there is no study on seed production in this context.

In this study, the agricultural households were analysed on the basis of an empirical survey carried out in three selected villages in a region of Yapacaní in the tropical province Ichilo. In addition to the evaluation, an analysis of the importance of seed production and its effect on the development process was carried out. An economic analysis of the main production systems was made to define the status of the seed production in those three villages. In addition more, a social analysis of the households was implemented. Both were based on questionnaires and interviews with the farmers.

3. Material & Methods

1. Structural Conditions

1. SEFO Commercial Seed Enterprise

The Swiss Technical Cooperation (COTESU) which trained students for a Master’s degree in agriculture together with the Faculty of Agriculture of the University ‘Major de San Simon’, started a research-program in 1969 to improve forage production in Bolivia. The scientific findings of the research program showed that it is not possible to have sustainable development with the actual local conditions and without producing local seed for forage plants (Wilhelm 1997).

In that time there was neither a significant market for forage plant seeds in Bolivia nor a commercialisation of seeds. The distribution of the material was handled through informal traditional channels. The production level was low because of ecological conditions. The disadvantages of the seed used to be quantity and insufficient quality. The import of seed was limited and expensive, due to a lack of foreign currency. There were also risks of phytosanitary problems and insufficient adaptation to climate and edaphic conditions, caused by the import of forage plant seed (Sauma 1996a).

The seed production and marketing activities began in 1972-73 with several temperate fodder crops: oat, maize and alfalfa. In the mid-1970s the production was later expanded by tropical species, such as Brachiaria decumbens, lablab and glycine. In 1976 the status of a corporation was established. The company was supported by Centro de Investigación Agrícola Tropical- Santa Cruz, the Misión Británica, the University ‘Autonóma Gabriel René Moreno’ (UAGRM), the ‘Corporación de Desarrollo de Santa Cruz’ (CORDECRUZ) and CIAT-Colombia. The initial clients were mainly international institutions providing social aid programmes to Bolivia (Ferguson & Sauma 1993).

Between 1974 and 1988, the Swiss Technical Cooperation contributed approximately US$1.5 million to SEFO. Ever since it is self-financing. In 1986, COTESU began to transfer its share to seed producers. In first place, the principal activities today are seed production and marketing of a wide range of forage plant species, both temperate and tropical. In second place, activities are research of forage plants and community support, reflecting the orientation of COTESU.

The main aims is to achieve independence of Bolivia, concerning the forage seed sector and substitution of imported seed, to offer the rural farmer a wide range of high quality species, that are adapted to ecological and technological conditions in each Bolivian region, production at international standard; economically adjusted prices for the Bolivian small scale farmer and, in order to attain these aims the enterprise SEFO was created as a mixed joint-stock company. The biggest shareholder is the University MSS with US$ 196,180.- which is 51%. The Swiss Technical Cooperation has a 35% (US$ 134,730.-) stake in this firm and the smallholder farmers are shareholders of 14% (US$ 57,272.-) (SEFO 1997). COTESU intends to transfer its whole share to the producers by year 2000.

The shares of SEFO are not for resale. A farmer can only claim a share when he has co-operated continuously with the company for 5 years. The share guarantees fixed prices of all the seeds. Only a bankruptcy of SEFO will cause the shares to be paid out to the farmer. Representatives of COTESU and farmers meet at least once a year to define the policy for the following year and to vote their member of the "board of directors". However it seems that the inner organisation, the representatives of farmers needs further development.

For the production SEFO provides five tractors for tilling and sowing, three combined- and three stationary treshing-machines, five pickups and one freight-vehicle. The purchase of seeds normally occurs in the production zones at centrally situated places or routes. The purchase is controlled by central collection points in each zone: Chayaza in San Juan de Oro de Tarija; Warnes in Santa Cruz and La Violeta in Cochabamba. At these collection points there are machines for precleaning. However, in Cochabamba there is an air dryer, different cleaners, treatment machines, storerooms, scales and packaging machines.

SEFO employs a director, two engineers, two administrative employees, three technical employees, an instructor and five workers.

In the region of Yapacaní, which belongs to the Province of Santa Cruz, SEFO established its seed production of tropical forage crops, mainly legumes. Pueraria phaseoloides (Kudzú) was introduced into the region in 1970 by FAO, the Holland HEIFER-Project, and the Centro de Investigación Agrícola Tropical of Santa Cruz (CIAT), and is now naturalised and thriving. While flowering is usually prolific, seed is variable. In 1985, SEFO began to buy seed from farmer families who collected seeds by hand from roadsides, fallow areas and pastures. Since then, SEFO has introduced other legumes like Macrotyloma axillare (archer) and Calopogonium mucunoides (calopo) in 1988, Desmodium ovalifolium, and Arachis pintoi (mani forrajero) in 1989 in the region and has successfully begun its seed production (Figure 1) (Ferguson & Sauma 1993).



Figure 1 Process of Multiplication, Procedure and Distribution of Forage Seed by SEFO

SEFO was found its way to Arachis pintoi by a seed production contract from CIAT’s Tropical Pasture Program in October 1989. SEFO harvested in 1990 for the first time and delivered this seed in 1991. SEFO provides basic seed, technical assistance and small screens for seed separation. Farmers provide family labour for weed control and seed harvesting, washing and drying. SEFO takes delivery on-farm, conducts final drying and cleaning in Warnes, and then transfers seed to Cochabamba for storage, quality assessment and marketing (Figure 1). In 1992, recovered seed yields ranged from 1-5 t/ha, with an average of approximately 2.0-2.5 t/ha (Ferguson & Sauma 1993).

2. Socio-economic Conditions - Settlements Naranjal and San Rafael

The Provinces Sara and Ichilo are located in the north of the Department Santa Cruz between the Co-ordinates 15° 48’ and 17° 59’ degree of latitude south and 63° 13’ and 64° 49’ degree of longitude west. The Province Ichilo is characterised by its transition zones, containing tropical lowlands and sub-Andean mountains. The settlements Naranjal, San Rafael and La Cumbre are located between 17° 30’ 65" and 17° 30’ 77" degree of latitude south and 63° 99’ 96" and 64° 00’ 05" degree of longitude west. La Cumbre is located in the tropical rainforest zone Cerro San Rafael on 690 m NN near the Nacional Parc Amboró. Naranjal is located in the more dry llanura (lowlands) on 290 m NN about 3 km from the Highway No.7 and 9 km of Yapacaní.

The average temperature in the investigated region is 24° C. The differences between the two seasons are characterised by the presence of ‘days with south winds’ with a monthly average of 20° C. The wet season has a higher temperature with 26° C. The minimum temperature does not fall below 12.7° C (CEDETI 1998; Teodevich & Gumz 1994).

1. Data Base and Method of Analysis and Evaluation

0. Data Base

1. Results & Discussion

1. Personal Characteristics

The average age of the rural population in the region Yapacaní is relatively young. 72% of the population is younger than 30 years (Table 2). Distribution of gender is approximately 51% male and 49% female (CEDETI 1997).

Age Groups (rural area Yapacaní) in years	Total	in %
>51	1541	7.8
31-50	3939	20.0
16-30	4784	24.0
6-15	5856	29.6
<5	3621	18.4

Table 2 Stratification of the Population in Rural Region of Yapacaní (CEDETI 1997)

The average farmer in the surveyed settlements is 45.8 years old, his wife 40.0 years (Table 3).

Person	Mean Age	Std Dev	Max	Min
Men	45.8	11.9	77	22
Women	40.0	10.3	60	20
Child 1	16.5	7.2	28	2
Child 2	15.0	6.5	28	3
Child 3	11.9	5.7	26	3
Child 4	9.2	4.4	17	2

Table 3 Means in Age Structure of a Family in the Surveyed Region (n=22) (Source: authors data)

Education of rural population is mainly restricted to primary school, only approximately half of the pupils continue school (secondary school) (Table 4).

Person		Education Level (in %)
male	Primary school	48.2
male	Secondary school	28.2
female	Primary school	50.6
female	Secondary school	23.5

Table 4 Education Level of Farmer s and their Wives in the Province Ichilo (Herrero & Rojas 1998)

In 1992 in the Province Ichilo 21.6 % of the population older than 15 years are analphabets, of this 34% are women. Today in rural regions 45% of pupils are female (CEDETI 1997).

 

Summaries of Time of school education of the farmers

By levels of VILLAGE

Variable Value Label Sum Mean Std Dev Variance Cases

For Entire Population 53 2.4 2.2 5.1 22

VILLAGE 1 18 3.0 2.1 4.8 6

VILLAGE 2 23 2.5 2.2 5.2 9

VILLAGE 3 12 1.7 2.4 5.9 7

Table 5 Education Level of the Farmers in the Surveyed Region (in years of school by villages) (Source: authors data)

The farmers have an average length of school education of 2.4 years (Table 5), their wives 2.2 years, and their first child 5.6 years (Source: authors data).

In the surveyed region the farmers are mainly occupied in their agricultural holding. In many cases they also have a voluntary job in farming organisations like UNAPEGA, SEFO or ASOPLE. A non-agricultural occupation (e.g. taxi driver or employee on poultry-farms) which 8.2% of the population have, is only common to sons of the farmers (Source: authors data).

2. Household Categories

1. Farm and Farm Management Structures

0. Farm Size and Land Distribution

Half of the total area of the provinces Sara and Ichilo is still primary forest, and most of the land that is cultivated is barbecho (secondary forest or fallow land). This indicates the importance of the agricultural production system shifting cultivation. The land distribution of the micro-region is shown in Table 9:

Land	Surface (ha)	%
Forest	1020,000	48.3
Grass land and natural pasture	60,000	2.8
Arable land and Barbechos	840,000	39.8
Urban area and River sides	191,000	9.1

Table 9 Land Resources in the Provinces Ichilo and Sara (Roca 1998)

In the region of Yapacaní the distribution of agricultural land is similar. Regarding the arable land makes up 30% of the land (16,500 ha), 17.3% is wild pasture (9,500 ha), and 52.7% is cultivated pasture (29,000 ha) (CEDETI 1997). Distribution of agricultural land of the micro-region is shown in Table 10.

Land	Surface (ha)	%
Annual cultivars	83,5	9.9
Permanent cultivars	4.9	0.6
Pasture	200,0	23.8
Barbechos	551,6	65.7

Table 10 Distribution of Agricultural Land in the Provinces Ichilo and Sara (Roca 1998)

The area of pasture is conspicuously high, especially in the region of Yapacaní and in the part of cultivated pasture. This demonstrates the specialisation of the agricultural holdings of small scale dairy farming.

Size	Farms		Surface
in ha	No.	%	ha	%
< 20	441	31.4	7861	7.2
20-50	875	62.2	34797	31.7
50-100	54	3.8	3034	2.8
100-500	11	0.8	2683	2.4
500-2000	13	0.9	9527	8.7
>2000	12	0.9	51815	47.2

Table 11 Land Tenure Distribution in Yapacaní (CEDETI 1998)

In Table 11 the distribution of farm sizes in the region of Yapacaní can be seen. As a result of the award of land titles, in the time of the land reform, most of the farms (62.2%) and 31.7% of the surface belong to farms with a size between 20 and 50 ha.

 

	Village 1 Mean (n=6)	Village 2 Mean (n=9)	Village 3 Mean (n=7)	Total Mean	Sum
Arable Land (ha)	1.8	4.2	2.8	2.9	69
Permanent Crops (ha)	3.1	2.4	0.6	2.0	44.9
Forest (ha)	4.6	11.9	10.3	8.8	207.7
Barbecho (ha)	4.3	21.3	17.2	14.1	339.0
Pasture (ha)	29.7	6.8	20.0	18.8	380.0
Land (ha)	42.5	46.6	50.9	46.6	990.1
(possible) Income (US-$)	10442.5	3673.7	6433.6	6397.9

Table 12 Distribution of Land in the Surveyed Settlements in Means (Source: authors data)

The tendency repeats itself in the surveyed settlements (Table 12 and Figure 5). It is shown that arable land is of low importance. With the exception of the first village, the forest area in the villages is large. Permanent crops, mainly citrus fruit or banana plantations exist in village 1. In these villages, however, the most important agricultural land is pasture land with 15% in village 2 and up to 70% in village 1.



Figure 5 Distribution of Land in the Surveyed Settlements in Percentage (Source: authors data)

 

1. Farming Systems

The settlements in the surveyed region are mainly influenced by settlers from the uplands. Generally, they came to their plot with few means of production, or mostly only with their own manpower. The majority of the plots is awards (donations) of the Bolivian Government. In the beginning the settlers practised shifting cultivation (agricultura migratoria), striving to invest the benefits some years later on in animal husbandry, mainly in meat production but also in dairy farming, when the possibility is given (Figure 6). If the conditions permit, the settlers invest in perennial crop plantations, mainly citrus fruit plantations, or in the mechanisation of their production system (Wacholtz 1996). This development has been in progress for 40 years. There are several stages and variations in the process, however, depending on the individual situation and condition.



Figure 6 Simplified Depiction of the Evolution of Agricultural Production Systems and Use of Agricultural Land in Yapacaní (below time axis)(According to Wacholtz 1996)

In Figure 6 the general development of land use is shown. The use of land depends on the development of production systems and therefore consequently on agricultural systems. In the surveyed region agricultural holdings in several stages of development of agricultural systems were found.

 

Agricultural Zone	Intensity of Land Use	Production System
Pie de monte	extensive	Agrícola migratorio
		Agrícola migratorio with little animal husbandry
	intensive	Little dairy farm
		Agricola diversificado
Lowlands	extensive	Agrícola migratorio
		Agrícola migratorio with little animal husbandry
		Cattle farm
	intensive	Animal husbandry with little mechanisation
		Agricola mecanizado
		Agricola mecanizado diversificado (Granjas)
		Specified dairy farm

Table 13 Classification of the Production Systems in the Provinces Ichilo and Sara (Warmenbol 1997)

A detailed classification of the transition stages of agricultural systems permit an analysis of this dynamical process. In the region of Yapacaní the most important stages in the metamorphosis and development process of agricultural systems are the Agricola migratorio (shifting-cultivation system), Agricola ganadero (animal husbandry system), Agricola intensivo (mostly intensive dairy farms), and Agricola mecanizado, which are shown in Table 13.



Figure 7 Criteria of Classification of Agricultural Systems in the Rural Region of Yapacaní (Wacholtz 1996)

In Figure 7 the criteria that discriminates the holdings in the different systems is shown. In summary it can be recorded that the availability of mechanically prepared terrain has a high socio-economic impact on agricultural systems, especially on manpower. The second criteria – one hectare or more with perennial crops and major animal husbandry – was utilised for the differentiation of the holdings and the classification of the intensive farmer (Agricola intensivo). This system and the major-animal-husbandry are characterised by their relatively high investment of capital in perennial crops or dairy cows and their permanent and intensive use of land. Animal husbandry with more than 5 dairy cows has a significant economic impact (Wacholtz 1996).



Figure 8 Distribution of Land Use in Agricultural Systems of Yapacaní/Bolivia (Source: modified Wacholtz 1996)

In the following a description of the agricultural systems of the surveyed region is made, listed in Table 13.

The Agricola migratorio has relatively unlimited resources of land, but very little capital resource for use in means of production (fertiliser et cetera) and external manpower (Figure 8 and Table 13). The main kind of production is rice, which is cultivated two to three years on a of forest or barbecho cleared plot. It is common to sow pasture, mostly Brachiaria decumbens, in the fallow land, if there are cattle. In this special situation cattle are an investment and have no importance for the households’ income (compare Roca 1998). An important increase of the households’ income is reached by selling of manpower.

This system is very vulnerable in the surveyed region (Pie de monte), due to its low natural fertility and proneness to erosion of the soil.

The ‘Agricola migratorio with little animal husbandry gains in importance when in the first system diseases become very powerful and the yield becomes lower. The farmer invests more in fencing the plots and in dairy cows or cattle.

The main income in the ‘Little Dairy Farm’ is from selling milk or cheese. The cows are genetically improved and give 5 to 6 litres daily. The pasture is also improved and has subdivided plots. The ‘Little Dairy Farm’ is characterised by its supplementation of feed and good sanitary supply. There is also artificial insemination. Agriculture is more like a complementation activity and mostly orientated to subsistence.

Agricola diversificado is a system which is common in the region ‘Pie de monte’. It is a combination of several production activities with orientation to the market. The most important activities are plantations of citrus plants, followed by pineapple production and apiculture. The aim cultivation is familiar supply.

The ‘Cattle Farm’ with its own recruitment has mostly good access to veterinary services, acquisition of production means and commercialisation.

‘Animal husbandry with little mechanisation’ is a group of farm systems which are characterised by 3 to 10 ha of mechanised rice production, but there is also animal husbandry to minimise the risks of production and to have reserves in case of necessity. Machines are rent to prepare the land and manpower for the harvest is also rent. However, this dependence is the vulnerable side of this production system.

The ‘Agricola mechanizado’ is an important group of production systems in the lowland region. It is characterised by its own machines including harvesters. The results are therefore higher than those of the previous systems. They use a rotation with rice or maize in the summer and soy beans or beans in the dry period (Table 14). The profitability of surface per unit in this system is very high, therefore animal husbandry is of no importance.

The ‘Ganaderia lechera especializada’ (Specified Dairy Production) contains dairy holdings with a high technology standard like electronic milking equipment and permanent feed supplements. To do this they milk twice a day between 10 to 15 l/cow/ day. The cows are genetically improved by artificial insemination. They have improved pastures and a good rotation management.

2. Availability of Labour Force

In the previous observations it has been shown that manpower is a limited factor in agricultural production. The availability of family manpower is therefore an important factor in the agricultural holding and household. The mean of the household size is 6.2 and varies between 4 to 8 persons in the systems, with the result in a differentiation of available net manpower for agricultural activities and activities outside the farm.

Activities

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Summer soil preparation (manual)

X

X

soil preparation (mechanical)

X

sowing

X

phytosanitary control

X

X

X

harvest

X

X

X

Winter soil preparation

X

sowing

X

phytosanitary control

X

X

X

harvest

X

Table 14 Activities and Occupation in the Rice and Beans Production Cycle (Source: authors data)

The availability of net family manpower for agricultural activities increases with the Agricola migratorio to Agricola intensivo and decreases with the Agricola mechanizado. The different availability of manpower concurred with the distinct requirements of the systems (Table 15).

Agricultural System	Agricola migratorio (n=33)			Agricola ganadero (n=51)
Persons	Men	Women	Total	Men	Women	Total
Adult (15-55 years)	1.3	1.0	2.3	1.5	1.3	2.8
Young (10-15 years)	0.3	0.3	0.6	0.7	0.6	1.3
Major (>55 years)	0.1	0.1	0.2	0.2	0.1	0.3
Children (<10 years)	0.7	0.8	1.5	1.1	0.5	1.6
Sum			4.6			6.0
gross fam. manpower	577	467	1044	778	654	1432
net family manpower	279	128	407	459	196	655
casual employment	20	38	58	71	47	118
available manpower			465			773
contract manpower			61			62

Agricultural System	Agricola intensivo (n=13)			Agricola mecanizado (n=21)
Persons	Men	Women	Total	Men	Women	Total
Adult (15-55 years)	1.5	1.9	3.4	1.6	1.0	2.2
Young (10-15 years)	0.7	0.7	1.4	0.4	0.6	1.0
Major (>55 years)	0.2	0.0	0.2	0.1	0.0	0.1
Children (<10 years)	0.2	0.8	1.0	0.6	0.6	1.2
Sum			6.0			4.5
gross fam. manpower	778	873	1651	712	519	1231
net family manpower	423	278	701	447	155	603
casual employment	75	86	161	34	19	53
available manpower			862			656
contract manpower			83			119

Table 15 Size of Household and Availability of Manpower in Different Agricultural Systems in the Region Yapacaní (modified Wacholtz 1996)

Conspicuous is the high level of manpower resulting from the high number of young household members in the agricultural system ‘Agricola ganadero’ in relation to the system ‘Agricola migratorio’. It is difficult to link other family manpower to the plot. Reasons for that might be the high distance between the village and the plot and the hard work. It should be noted that work with animals is preferred by young family manpower. Contract manpower are increased regularly up to ‘Agricola mecanizado’.

Family Size	Availability days/year
1	308
2	488
3	599
4	830
5	862
>6	1282

Table 16 Availability of Net Family Manpower in Agricultural Systems in Province Ichilo (Teodevich & Gumz 1994)

Teodevich and Gumz (1994) reported that the participation of women in all kinds of work is significant. The main limited factor in production is the availability of manpower. With increase of the family size, the net family-power increases too (Table 16). Searching for an increase of profitability of the production system, most of the farmers invest in its mechanisation, if it is possible for them.

The main activities which require manpower are soil preparation, weed control and harvest. Agricultural holdings with less than 3 ha cultivated land do not have the monetary liquidity to contract manpower. The same factor limits the mechanisation of agriculture. The costs for one manpower per day (8 h) come to US-$ 4 to 5.50 including alimentation.

The failure of liquidity of small scale farmers most time of the year makes it necessary to sell their manpower. For this reason there is not enough manpower for the cultivation their own plot, so the cultivated land is reduced.

Cultivated Land (ha)	Sale of Manpower (d/y)
<2.5	63
2.5-5.5	9
>5.5	5

Table 17 Sale of Family Manpower in Dependance to Farm’s own Cultivated Land in the Province Ichilo (Teodevich & Gumz 1994)

However, in the Andean settlements the principle of reciprocity still exist, which is used between families, and also as work for the community (Teodevich & Gumz 1994).

3. Aspects of Land Tenure

	Factors	Village 1	Village 2	Village 3
Land	n	6	8	8
in ha	Mean	42.5	46.8	45.0
	Median	30.0	50.0	50.0
	Range	129.9	45.0	100.0
Leased Land	n	6	8	8
in ha	Mean	3.6	0.0	5.6
	Median	0.5	0.0	0.0
	Range	15.0	0.0	45.0

Table 18 Distribution of Landed Property and Leased Land in the Surveyed Region (Source: authors data)

Table 18 shows that only few farmers in the surveyed settlements leased land. The leased land is mainly used for rice cultivation in a different zone, where the conditions were better than in the surveyed zone. Secondly, employees leased land to have subsistence supply. In Table 11 the distribution of land tenancy in the district can be seen, whereas Table 18 shows the distribution of land tenancy in the settlements. The median demonstrates the main size, which is in the village 1 30.0 ha, in village 2 and 3, 50.0 ha. Many farmers bought two plots, so that mean changed.

In the district of Yapacaní there are 1436 plots with land title (Table 11). 89% of these plots have a size of 15 to 50 ha, and represent 38.6% of the distributed surface. 58% of the titles are executive titles, 37.5% are only registered, and 4.5% are register titles in transition. 32% of the titles are bought in the previous time and 68% of the titles have been awards of the government to colonise the region (CEDETI 1997).

8.5% of the land owners in the district Yapacaní are women, from 367 farms. This coincides with the 364 women who identify themselves as ‘head of family’ (CEDETI 1997).

4. Water Availability, Water Rights and Energy

The access to potable water is different between the settlements. In village 1 every household has a fresh water supply. Payment depends on the water consumption of the household and is approx. US-$ 130.- annually. In village 2 there is a bathhouse with river water supply in the centre. Village 3 has no direct water supply, but there are community wells which guarantee water supply for animals in the dry zone. It is part of the men’s work to carry water home, with horses or pickups. Most of the households have a collecting basin for rainwater.

Water availability is a limited factor in the production cycle of the region, but only in the dry zone between July and October. However, in village 1 there was a significant decrease on milk production during that time.

Energy supply only exists in village 1 and in 1999 in village 3. Energy is expensive and the payment also depends on the consumption. Some agricultural holdings with high technology equipment pay about US-$ 300.- yearly^-1. The average of payments in village 1 is US-$ 130.- yearly^-1. There are many households, however, that have no energy, because bills cannot be payed.

5. Cropping Structure

The most important crops in the region are rice, maize and yuca (Manihot esculenta). Crop cultivation is mostly important for family nourishment. Rice only is sold by some farmers. The average of arable land in the surveyed region is 3.14 ha. Most of this land is cultivated by rice, with about 63.3% (Table 19).

Variable Mean Variance Range Minimum Maximum Sum N

(in ha)

Arable Land 3.14 9.84 10.00 .00 10.00 69.00 22

Rice 2.11 7.52 10.00 .00 10.00 46.50 22

Maize .17 .13 1.00 .00 1.00 3.80 22

Arachis pintoi .10 .02 .50 .00 .50 2.18 22

Pueraria 1.68 4.56 7.00 .00 7.00 37.00 22

Table 19 Important Crops in the Surveyed Region (in ha) (Source: authors data)

There are differences in the distribution of crop cultivation between the surveyed villages (Table 20). Crop cultivation is of higher importance in village 2 and 3. In village 1 only rice has a significant importance. In village 2 there is a distribution of different crops. 25% of the farmers cultivate yuca and 75% cultivate rice and maize. Village 3 has a distribution of different crop cultivation similar as village 2. Crop cultivation is mainly for subsistence.

Cultivation in ha	Village 1(n=6)	Village 2 (n=8)	Village 3 (n=8)	Total (n=22)
Arable Land	1.8	4.5	2.7	3.1
Rice	1.4	2.4	2.3	2.1
Maize	0.0	0.3	0.2	0.2
Arachis pintoi	0.1	0.02	0.2*	0.1
Pueraria	0.6	3.25*	0.9	1.7

Table 20 Distribution of Crop Cultivation in the Surveyed Area (Source: authors data)

Nearly 60% of the households cultivate citrus fruit between 0.1 and 1 ha. The distribution between the villages is similar. The citrus fruit plants are mostly very young or just planted, often with the expectation of commercialisation. In village 3 the cultivation of Arachis pintoi is of importance, as well as Pueraria phaseoloides in village 2. Seed production will be discussed later.

In the district 48% of the land which is under cultivation is cultivated with rice, 26% with soy beans, 14% with citrus fruit, 5.3% with maize, 3 % with banana plantations 2% with yuca and 0.5% with beans (CEDETI 1997).

For all agricultural systems the rice cultivation is the most important crop (Table 21 and Figure 8) in the region. The surface of with rice cultivated land and profitability of rice production decreases with evolution of agricultural systems, and increase with mechanisation, respectively (Wacholtz 1996). Since there is a low percentage crop cultivation with yuca, beans and maize, these are mainly crops for subsistence. Seasonal crops like tomatoes, onions, potatoes, peanuts, etc. are of no statistical importance in the region, except forage seed production.

Cat	I (n=7)	III (n=10)	IV (n=2)	V (n=3)	Total (n=22)
Rice (ha)	4.1	1.1	2.5	0.5	2.1
Maize (ha)	0.2	0.2	0.2	0.0	0.2
Arachis (ha)	0.1	0.1	0.1	0.01	0.1
Perm. Crops (ha)	0.4	2.1	0.75	6.7	2.0
Arable Land (ha)	4.4	2.0	3.0	4.0	3.1
Pasture (ha)	12.4	26.1	10.7	3.3	17.2
Barbecho (ha)	16.4	13.5	22.2	14.6	15.4
Forest (ha)	14.6	7.3	3.5	8.3	9.4
Distance Yap (km)	19.8	12.2	19.5	8.6	.
Cattle (unit)	5.0	18.4	8.5	0.0	12.3
Income US-$/y	6064	8539	2851	2400	6397

Table 21 Cropping Patterns in Dependence to the Categories Owner Operator (I), Livestock Producer (III), Seed Producer (IV) and Farmer with Non-agric. Income (V) in the Surveyed Region (Source: authors data)

There are many associations of different crops in the region; however, they decrease with evolution of agricultural systems. These associations are for instance rice and maize, rice and banana, rice and maize and forage, or just maize and forage etc. In the system Agricola migratorio more than 84% of the rice cultivation is associated with other crops, whereas in the system Agricola mecanizado only 34% of the rice cultivation is associated with other crops (Wacholtz 1996). Forest activities are unusual in the region.

6. Technologies of Soil Cultivation

In the surveyed region manual work is still common. The spent time to cut down one hectare of forest by one person is up to 6 days. After that it takes 7 days for rough cleaning and to ignite the wood, and a further 6 days to plough through the plot by hand, whereas to plough by tractor only one day is necessary. It takes three days to sow crops. The rented manpower cost about US-$ 4.5 to 5.5 day^-1.

Rice needs more intense soil preparation, whereas maize only requires a rough soil preparation and is sown by a planting stick between the stumps of the former forest.

Mechanical soil preparation is used by farmers with bigger rice fields. The rent of tractor, however, is very expensive (US-$ 100-80.-/d). In the region, power saw are common, but only few farmers have their own. Thus, most farmers rent a person with a power saw to cut their forest.

A rice harvester costs about US-$ 385 for 5 ha (US-$ 77 ha^-1).

7. Livestock Production

Roca (1998) points out the fact that animal husbandry has a very significant importance on the economy in the micro-region of Yapacaní. The district has about 29,526 ha of pasture and 22,879 pieces of cattle. In Roca’s study farmers with cattle are stratified in livestock-holders with 1-10 animals, about 54.3%, and with 11-300 animals about 41%.

Dairy production in these villages is important. Nearly 77% of the farmers have dairy cows. However, the commercialisation of dairy products in villages 2 and 3 is mostly sporadic. Cattle in this region functions mainly as an insurance or as possibility for investments in the future. According to the definition of Wacholtz (1996), farmers with more than 5 cows per household are ‘livestock farmers’ in this region (Table 22). The average number of dairy cows per household in village 1 is high with 20 cows. Between the cattle populations there is a difference which is mainly based on genetic conditions, because in village 1 farmers use artificial insemination and have mainly genetically improved populations.

Village	n	mean	sum
1	6	20.0*	120
2	8	3.8	30
3	8	9.0	72
total	18	10.1	222

Table 22 Distribution of Dairy Cows in the Surveyed Region (n=Farmers; mean=Cows; sum=Cows in the Villages) (Source: authors data)



Figure 9 Distribution of Dairy Cows in the Surveyed Villages with Means and Variance (Source: authors data)

Figure 9 describes the frequency of female cows in the surveyed villages. In village 1 there is a collecting point for milk. To optimise their gross margin, farmers in that village use the possibility to enlarge the number of cows in their herds. In village 3 the cattle farmers mainly sell meat, because dairy products, except from cheese, are difficult to sell.

Another significant kind of animal production influencing the economic situation is poultry farming. 13% of the households have an income by selling poultry products. They buy brooded eggs and feed the chicken with rice or concentrate feed.

Animals with importance for subsistence are pigs and hairless sheep. 9% of the farmers have horses that are used for work far from home. 27.3% of the farmers have a car or motor cycle.

In the province the most important breeds of cattle are Brown-Swiss x Holstein-Friesian with 17.6%, followed by Holstein-Friesian with 15.3% and Criollos with 10.6%. However, 45.9% of the cattle are Mestizo (Herrero & Rojas 1998).

In village 1 there also exist Jersey dairy cows.

In the surveyed villages the most important type of animal nutrition is pasture. The pastures are mainly permanent pastures with a size of over one hectare. In most cases farmers know about rotation systems, but the investment in fences is high. Some of the farmers rotate with three to four pastures.

In Figure 10 the production of milk in village 1 (Naranjal) is shown. Most of the milk is produced in December and January. In winter 1998 the production was only 45% of the maximum amount. There is a correlation between precipitation and the growth rate of the pasture. Reasons for the low production in the dry season are quality and quantity of forage.



Figure 10 Amount of Collected Milk in Correlation with Time in Village 1 (Naranjal 1998) (n=38-45 farmers) and Average of Daily Sale of Milk from Selected Farmers (Source: authors data)

Herrero & Rojas (1998) evaluated the kind of pastures in the provinces Sara and Ichilo of 85 livestock holdings:

Kind of Pasture	% ha	% holdings
Brachiaria decumbens	40.9	71.8
B. brizanta	40.5	57.6
B. humidicola	8.1	15.3
B. mutica	0.0	0.0
B. ruzizensis	1.3	2.4
B. d. + B. b.	0.9	3.5
B. in different mixes	0.1	1.2
B. other cultivars	0.2	1.2
Panicum maximum Guinea	0.0	1.2
Pennisetum sp. (Taiwan)	1.2	22.4
Pennisetum sp. (Camerun)	0.0	1.2
Panicum maximum Tanzania	0.7	2.4
Panicum maximum Tobiata	0.1	2.4
Pangola	0.6	1.2
Pueraria phaseoloides	0.8	8.2
Paspalum sp.	0.2	1.2
Hiparrenia rufa	0.6	4.7
Others	3.8	20.0
Total	100

Table 23 Distribution of Pastures in the Provinces Sara and Ichilo (Herrero & Rojas 1998)

Table 23 shows the distribution of Brachiaria sp. in the region. The most important legume is Pueraria, but with 0.8% of the pastures it is highly underrepresented. The problem of the low milk yield which is shown in Figure 10 and discussed before is caused by a lack of protein (in the feed) during the dry season.

Kind of Pasture	% Protein (rough)
Brachiaria decumbens	8.8
Brachiaria brizantha	13.5
Panicum maximum Guinea	18.7
Pueraria phaseoloides	21.5
Flamingia	23.8
Mucuna beans	24.4

Table 24 Analysis of Different Pastures at the End of September in Naranjal (Mision Britanica 1994)

The analysis in Table 24 represents the pastures of village 1. The content of protein in B. decumbens may decrease to 5% in July. The cows generally calve in July and August which leads to the low milk production as mentioned before.

Herrero and Rojas (1998) found that 33% of the farmers let the calves suckle a quarter of the milk, 53% let them have the residues of milk.

In the province Ichilo 51.8% of the livestock owners add compound feed to the feed (pasture). 15.3% of the dairy farmers have mechanised holdings, whereas 69.4% of them only own one milking machine and 27.1% have two machines. Dairy equipment in the province is generally seldom, only 20% of the farms are equipped with feed stands, 26% have milking parlours and 11% have access to refrigerator tanks (Herrero & Rojas 1998).

With 32.9% compound feed supplement is the most common feed for dairy production and bran with 16,5% is the next important in the province (Herrero & Rojas 1998).

In the surveyed region 22.7% of the farmers use milking machines. Nearly all farmers with livestock answered that they add mineral supplements or compound feed, however, with different intensity. 9% of the farmers give mixed supplements e.g. sugar cane and concentrates.

8. Marketing Agricultural Products

The forage peanut can be reproducted generatively or vegetatively, depending on the conditions. From 300m² it is possible to gain vegetative material for one hectare. In order to reduce growth strength, the collected 20-30cm long plant material must be removed the same day or has to be protected from the sun in cool, wet conditions. In Bolivia reproduction of plants is usually conducted with generative plant material. 8-10kg ha^-1 is sown with a germination of 80%. The farmers drill seeds 2cm deep in the soil, 40cm between rows and 30cm in the rows. The seeds are sown by the ‘Macraca’ hand-seed-machine (plant stick), often in association with maize. In general, it is favourable to inocculate Arachis pintoi with symbiotic species of Bradyrhizobium. The best results in Yapacaní tested by Pijnenborg et al. (1996) showed that ‘CIAT 3101’ and ‘NC 92’ with the Arachis pintoi cultivar ‘CIAT 17434’ have the highest level of nitrogen fixation. However, Vargas (1980) could not find significant differences between inocculated or non-infected populations.

1. Capital Formation in the Surveyed Villages

0. Credit

In Yapacaní there are credit institutions. In 1997 500 farmers took a credit by the co-operative ‘La Merced’. With an interest tax of 20% year^-1 the credit is paid for 8 months and must be paid back in 3 years. The credit volume reaches US-$ 2500. In Yapacaní the Credit-NGO FONDECO (Fondo de Desarrollo Comunal) has been established since 1991. FONDECO has different kinds of credit, one of them can be paid back between 2 and 10 years with an interest rate of 10% year^-1. Credits to be paid back within two years must be paid with an interest rate of 12% year^-1. Rural micro credits, which must be paid back within 12 months has an interest rate of 15% year^-1 and the overdraft facilities have an interest rate of 25% year^-1. In 1997 FONDECO had 116 clients in Yapacaní and in the province 725 clients.

All the farmers in the surveyed villages gave the answer that they did not have a credit during that time.

1. Capital Formation in the Rural Households

Capital formation and the households’ income are important factors in the development process of agricultural production systems. In Table 28 the gross margin of the different agricultural activities in the surveyed villages is shown. The income of the dairy production is the highest with US-$ 7376.9 in village 1 and with a mean of all villages of US-$ 3243.9. Rice and maize, which are analysed here in US-$, are generally crops for subsistence and are not sold. In village 2 and 3 the production of rice is very important and a bit less that of maize crops. The potential of the seed production can be seen very briefly in this analysis. The seed production of Arachis pintoi in village 3 is one of the most important sources of income.

Village Gross Margin (US-$)	1 (n=6)	2 (n=8)	3 (n=8)	Total Mean
Dairy	7376.9	1330.2	2057.8	3243.9
Rice	1093.3	1603.6	1783.6	1529.9
Maize	.0	30.4	52.6	30.2
Pueraria	43.1	228.9	48.0	112.4
Arachis	513.5	133.8	1694.2	804.8

Table 28 Agricultural Activities and their Benefit for Households Income in the Surveyed Villages (Source: authors data)

Table 28 demonstrates that differences in the income stratification exists between the villages. In summary it can be said that there is a concentration of dairy production in village 1 and because of the high income, which is significantly different to the two other villages, it can be concluded that the production is intensive (in respect to Figure 7). In addition to this, the production of seed must have benefits to special areas or household categories, because in village 3 the production of Arachis pintoi is significantly different to the other villages, and the production of Pueraria phaseoloides must have a special reference to village 2.

Categories Gross Margin (US-$)	I (n=7)	III (n=10)	IV (n=2)	V (n=3)	Total (n=22) Mean
Dairy	1724.4	5725.7	1018.1	.0	3243.9
Rice	3233.2	748.5	1267.0	335.9	1529.9
Maize	11.8	50.5	38.0	.0	30.2
Pueraria	24.7	60.9	440.5	270.3	112.5
Arachis	1009.7	818.9	1101.2	82.0	804.8
Real Income1	2771.0	6980.1	2560.1	2065.7	4568.9

Table 29 Household Categories in the Surveyed Villages in Dependence to Special Agricultural Activities and their Benefit to the Households’ Income (Source: authors data) (Cat I: Main Income of Agricultural Activities; Cat III: Livestock farmer; Cat IV: Seed Producer; Cat V: Employee with farm) ¹(‘Real Income’ is the potential income (Gross Margin) less the self consumption)

The analysis of agricultural activities in dependence to the household categories, shown in Table 29, demonstrates that dairy production in all the agricultural households, except the category V, has special emphasis. There is a tendency that the households of the dairy farmers (Cat III) are not interested in producing rice, maize, kudzu (Pueraria) or mani forrajero (Arachis). The households of Cat I that contain transition forms between Agricola migratorio and Agricola ganadero (compare with Figure 7) are interested in seed production with Arachis pintoi, but less with Pueraria phaseoloides. Category IV contains two selected households, where seed production, as the main income source, is very important. This example demonstrates that the income from dairy farm and agricultural products is low, however the potential of seed production under these conditions is good. Kudzu (Pueraria) as well as mani forrajero (Arachis) have, in this category, a very significant role. In households of employees with agricultural activity kudzu has a significant importance, whereby Arachis is not an interesting production system.

 

Row Pct |VILLAGES

Col Pct | Row

Tot Pct | 1| 2| 3| Total

CATEGORY --------+--------+--------+--------+

OF HOUSEHOLDS I | n 0 | n 3 | n 4 | n 7

| | 42.9 | 57.1 | 31.8

| | 37.5 | 50.0 |

| | 13.6 | 18.2 |

+--------+--------+--------+

III | n 5 | n 2 | n 3 | n 10

| 50.0 | 20.0 | 30.0 | 45.5

| 83.3 | 25.0 | 37.5 |

| 22.7 | 9.1 | 13.6 |

+--------+--------+--------+

IV | n 0 | n 1 | n 1 | n 2

| | 50.0 | 50.0 | 9.1

| | 12.5 | 12.5 |

| | 4.5 | 4.5 |

+--------+--------+--------+

V | n 1 | n 2 | n 0 | n 3

| 33.3 | 66.7 | | 13.6

| 16.7 | 25.0 | |

| 4.5 | 9.1 | |

+--------+--------+--------+

Column n 6 n 8 n 8 n 22

Total 27.3 36.4 36.4 100.0

Table 30 Crosstable of the Surveyed Households with Household Categories and Distribution of the Villages (in%) (Source: authors data)

Households with the main income from dairy production systems can be found in village 1, but there is also the tendency in village 3. In village 1 dairy production is next to the possibility of employment the main source of income (Table 30). In village 2 and 3 there is a brighter diversity of sources of income. Most of the households are still those that get their main income by agricultural activities. These households are mainly settled in village 2 and 3, less in village 1. Households with the main source of income from seed production are only found in villages 2 and 3. Employees with agricultural activities are found in villages 1 and 2, which have the infrastructure to the town.

 

 

Count | VILLAGE

Row Pct |

Col Pct | Row

Tot Pct | 1| 2| 3| Total

CATEGORIES --------+--------+--------+--------+

OF POSSIBLE 1. | n 2 | | | n 2

INCOME | 100.0 | | | 9.1

| 33.3 | | |

| 9.1 | | |

+--------+--------+--------+

2. | n 2 | n 3 | n 2 | n 7

| 28.6 | 42.9 | 28.6 | 31.8

| 33.3 | 37.5 | 25.0 |

| 9.1 | 13.6 | 9.1 |

+--------+--------+--------+

3. | n 1 | | n 4 | n 5

| 20.0 | | 80.0 | 22.7

| 16.7 | | 50.0 |

| 4.5 | | 18.2 |

+--------+--------+--------+

4. | n 1 | n 5 | n 2 | n 8

| 12.5 | 62.5 | 25.0 | 36.4

| 16.7 | 62.5 | 25.0 |

| 4.5 | 22.7 | 9.1 |

+--------+--------+--------+

Column n 6 n 8 n 8 n 22

Total 27.3 36.4 36.4 100.0

Table 31 Crosstable of the Surveyed Households with Income Categories and Distribution of the Villages (in %; n=22) (US-$ 1.= >10,000; 2. = 4,000-6000; 3. = 2,000-4,000; 4. = <2000) (Source: authors data)

In Table 31 the distribution of households with dependency on their income and the villages are demonstrated. In village 1 most of the households attain a good income, whereas a range of all income categories exist. In village 2 the households are sharply divided in poor or better income households, whereas most of the surveyed households belong the poor household category. In village 3 the distribution is spread wider, but there is a tendency to poorer income categories. However, 50% of the surveyed households belong to poor categories and are in villages 2 and 3.

 

 

- - - S P E A R M A N C O R R E L A T I O N C O E F F I C I E N T S - - -

VILLAGE -.3012

N( 22)

Sig .173

GM KUDZU -.2560 -.0994

N( 22) N( 22)

Sig .250 Sig .660

GM ARACHIS .1876 .4564 -.1093

N( 22) N( 22) N( 22)

Sig .403 Sig .033 Sig .628

DAIRY COWS .8454 -.1716 -.3034 .3198

N( 22) N( 22) N( 22) N( 22)

Sig .011 Sig .445 Sig .170 Sig .147

INCOME VILLAGE GM KUDZU GM ARACHIS

Table 32 Correlation Coefficients of some Factors: Income of Households; Villages; Gross Margin Pueraria (Kudzu); Gross Margin Arachis; Dairy Cows (n) (Source: authors data)

In Table 32 the correlation coefficients of some factors are demonstrated. It shows that the production of seed from Pueraria has tendencies to households with lower income. The number of dairy cows has a significant influence on the households’ income. There is a significant correlation between the production of Arachis and the villages.

Dairy Cows	0 LU	1-10 LU	11-40 LU	n Farms
1. Income Cat.	0% 0%	0% 0%	12.5% 100%	1
2. Income Cat.	20% 10%	33% 30%	75% 60%	10
3. Income Cat.	0% 0%	56% 83%	12.5% 17%	6
4. Income Cat.	80% 80%	11% 20%	0% 0%	5

Table 33 Distribution of Farmers with Dairy Cows in Dependency to Income Categories (US-$ 1.= >10,000; 2. = 4,000-6000; 3. = 2,000-4,000; 4. = <2000) (Source: authors data)

The surveyed households which belong to the poor household categories have only few dairy cows or any at all (Table 33). There is a linearity showing a dependency between dairy cows and income: with an increase in the number of dairy cows the income increases too. Most of the households with better income categories, have 10 and more dairy cows.

 

Gross Margin of Arachis Seed Prod. in US-$	0.-	1- 500.-	501- 1000.-	1001- 3100.-	n Farms
1. Income Cat.	17% 100%	0% 0%	0% 0%	0% 0%	1
2. Income Cat.	33% 20%	43% 30%	0% 0%	71% 50%	10
3. Income Cat.	17% 17%	14% 17%	100% 33%	29% 33%	6
4. Income Cat.	33% 40%	43% 60%	0% 0%	0% 0%	5

Table 34 Production of Seed of Arachis pintoi in Dependency to Income Categories (US-$ 1.= >10,000; 2. = 4,000-6000; 3. = 2,000-4,000; 4. = <2000) (Source: authors data)

Table 34 shows the dependency of income categories on the seed production of Arachis pintoi. All the surveyed households had connection to SEFO Company some time ago, so this Table demonstrates the stratification of the SEFO counterparts. No dependency can be seen from households’ income and seed production, only that households of poor income categories gained less than US-$ 500.-. Further the production of seed from Arachis pintoi is mainly in hands of households of middle class income, which produce seeds in value between a gross margin of US-$ 500-3000.-. That means the ‘Cash-Crop’ Arachis pintoi enables the farmer to reach another income category.

2. Liquidity

The economical success of a household is not only based on income but also on liquidity. Liquidity is the part of the capital which is effective available for the household or the production. Liquidity is the result of the cash flow in a limited period. The households in the surveyed region do not have an effective income from February to June, or there is an unbalance of costs and effective income in several months. During this period of unbalance it might not be possible for the farmers to get good prices for their products neither for their manpower (Wacholtz 1996).

Mainly the households of Agricola migratorio and the small scale animal husbandry farms of Agricola ganadero in village 2 and 3 have problems with their liquidity.

3. Productivity

1. Forage Seed Production in Context of Regional Agricultural Development

1. Bibliography

Table 1 Deliminations of the Household Categories for the Region Yapacaní *

Figure 1 Process of Multiplication, Procedure and Distribution of Forage Seed by SEFO *

1 Summary *

2 Introduction *

3 Material & Methods *

3.1 Structural Conditions *

3.1.1 SEFO Commercial Seed Enterprise *

3.1.2 Socio-economic Conditions - Settlements Naranjal and San Rafael *

3.1.3 Natural Conditions – Circumstances of Rural Production *

3.2 Data Base and Method of Analysis and Evaluation *

3.2.1 Data Base *

3.2.2 Criteria Determining the Categories *

3.2.3 Process *

4 Results & Discussion *

4.1 Personal Characteristics *

4.2 Household Categories *

4.3 Farm and Farm Management Structures *

4.3.1 Farm Size and Land Distribution *

4.3.2 Farming Systems *

4.3.3 Availability of Labour Force *

4.3.4 Aspects of Land Tenure *

4.3.5 Water Availability, Water Rights and Energy *

4.3.6 Cropping Structure *

4.3.7 Technologies of Soil Cultivation *

4.3.8 Livestock Production *

4.3.9 Marketing Agricultural Products *

4.3.10 Forage Seed Production in the Surveyed Agricultural holdings *

4.4 Capital Formation in the Surveyed Villages *

4.4.1 Credit *

4.4.2 Capital Formation in the Rural Households *

4.4.3 Liquidity *

4.4.4 Productivity *

5 Forage Seed Production in Context of Regional Agricultural Development *

6 Bibliography *