THE CHAPTER 6. OUR DEAR EARTH

At first about the form of the Earth. We slightly make an error, when we speak, that it has the form of a full-sphere. The equatorial radius of the Earth is equal 6378.16 km, a polar radius - 6356.78 km, that  on 21.38 km less. It mean, that the Earth is a little flattened out and have the form close to an ellipsoid of rotation. The mass of the Earth is 5,98х10²⁷ g, average denseness of the Earth - 5,52 g/sm³ . How the Earth is arranged, we represent not bad. There are different methods of study its entrails. At first, this study of rocks lying on a surface. Secondly, study of rocks in mines, on breaks, on deep drilling. So it is possible to study entrails up to depth about 10 km. On structure of rocks from volcanic eruptions, it is possible to study structure of substances up to depth in hundreds km. A structure of a planet on large depthes are determining with the help of of seismic researches.
       The principle of seismic researches is, that the sound waves are differently  passes in rocks of different structure and also is depending from that, there are rocks in liquid, or rigid phase. Besides they are reflected on the boundaries of phases and densenesses. Source of sound oscillations are the earthquakes. The displacements of a terrestrial surface are registrating by the sensing gears - seismographs, that are installed on seismic stations in all extremities of globe. On each station the exact time of a beginning of an event is fixed. It allows to make a picture of distribution of seismic waves in entrails of the Earth.
      By a study of such measurements the conclusions about properties of  deep terrestrial substance also was made. The entrails  of our planet is shown (Fig. 4):

Moon. Moon - satellite of the Earth, which exerted and exert huge influence to all processes on our planet. Therefore we must be acquainted with it much closely.
      The radius of moon is equal 1737 km, the mass in 81,3 times is less than a mass of the Earth, and average denseness (3,35 g/sm³), in 1,5 times densenesses of the Earth there are less. Temperature on lunar equator is changes from +130°С in midday up to - 170°С in midnight, and the duration of lunar day equally to 29,5 to terrestrial one. Already by the unaided eyes on the moon a light areas - "continents", that take part about 60 % of the lunar disk, and dark "seas" (40 %) (Photo 14) well differ. The most effective detailes of a lunar surface are the craters. On the visible party of moon of craters with a diameter from one up to hundred kilometers is totalled about 300 000. Five craters have sizes more than 200 km.

The overwhelming majority of craters has, doubtlessly, shock origin.  With the  time, "dynamic equilibrium" occurs: the process of formation of new craters is accompanied by the destruction of old, which are "ploughed up" and are erased from a face of moon. Some craters, under the judgement some scientists, have a volcanic origin. Therefore by analogy to terrestrial "samples" on moon are selecting: 1) maars - small-sized (diameter up to 5 km) circular hollows that is limited by higher edges, 2) calders - craters with flat bottom located on top of a mountain, 3) a mountain shaped as a dome with small craters on top. The seas are the areas which have been filled  with dark substance, that  look like the  volcanic lava. The boundary raisings on a rim of the seas are named cordilleras.
      The research of the reverse side of moon was lead to the unexpected conclusion: on it only three are concerning  small seas. In it, probably, there is nothing surprising. You see as our Earth is nonsymmetric also. Almost half of its surface occupy  Pacific ocean, whereas continents are on other half. Instead of the seas on reverse side of moon the new formations - talassoids ("a sea look like ") - large hollows are detected, which surface looks same light, as well as continents.
     Precise observations on the movement of the artificial satellites of Moon have shown, that over various sites of a lunar surface the satellites goes with a unequal velocity. So the conclusion was made, that the distribution of a mass in surface stratums of moon (mainly near to equator) is inhomogeneous. On minor depth under the large ring-shaped seas the "concentration of a mass", received the reduced title mascons, are located. Apparently, mascons represent areas of the hardened lava, which denseness is higher than a denseness of enclosing continental areas.
       In an result of continuous bombardment of a lunar surface by meteorites on it was formed a friable cover by a thickness about six meters. This stratum is called as a regolith. It includes three factions: the crystalline cast out rocks, brekchies and friable fine-grained material. The analysis of a structure of crystallinerocks results in a conclusion, that they at one time were completely melted, and then have undergone to very fast cooling. Among lunar crystalline rocks samples a gabroidal  type are found. The lunar continents consist mainly from andesits and basalts, the seas are covered with basalt lavas. There is no doubt and that in the past moon has gone through epoch of intensive volcanic activity. The outside stratum of a regolith is represents by as a sand-dust  material with a dark-gray  color by a thickness 16 — 30 sm. It is covered as though with thin film of a dust of light gray color.
                 It was revealed, that the age of lunar rocks is in limits from 3,13 up to 4,4 billions of years. From here follows, that moon was derivated approximately at the same time, as Earth, and that the volcanic phenomena were stopped on moon about 3  billions years back. On an early stage of the development the Moon has been almost completely melted. It also has cause of differentiation of its substance, and plagioclases as light components, have emerged and, having hardened, has formed the primary lunar crust. By the measurements from the satellites it seemed, that  magnetic field of moon approximately in 1000 times is less terrestrial. However direct measurements by gears delivered to it a surface, have shown, that the constant field varies here from a point to a point. It speaks that in the past there was force a magnetization of separate sites of moon, which reason is not understanding now.
     Was discovered, that in deep entrails of moon the temperature does not exceed 1500°С. Thus, today moon is a rather cold celestial body. The rather low seismic activity speaks and about it.
     Now the consideration of an internal structure of moon it is accepted to select a crust - an external stratum by a thickness about 60 km, upper cover by a thickness of 250 km, average cover, located on depthes of 300-800 km, lower cover, and also small iron nucleus by a radius in some hundreds kilometers. The nucleus is in melted or in semimelted a status.

THE CHAPTER 7. A HISTORY of DEVELOPMENT of EARTH

So, we shall present a process of formation of our planet and of its development till now. Let's return to a that moment, when to a double system of the Sun and neutron star the star the white dwarf was approximated, and more visually we shall present further events.
     The neutron star, on all visibility, was on a distance from the Sun same, as well as the Earth now. It played a role "vampire". The part of substance from a corona of the Sun fall on a neutron star. The white dwarf, with a velocity, smaller of the third space velocity (that is velocity  with which body for ever abandons neighbourhoods of a star), has come in a zone of influence of a gravitation of a star-shaped pair. Now system began to consist of three stars. In a celestial mechanics a solution of a problem of three bodyes already rather complicated. In thus conditions the probability of a unstable solution is high. That is, in this dancing of the Sun, neutron star and the white dwarf the probability of collision of the white dwarf with a neutron star essentially will increase. Therefore, in short time such collision also has taken place.
     Is necessary to mark, that both neutron star, and white dwarf are have crust, that is consisting from rather easy elements - calcium, aluminium and other. Therefore, after there was an explosion, the splinters consisting of three groups - iron (with impurity of a nickel), hondrits and ahondrits also. As we already spoke, 99 % of these splinters have acquired a velocity above by third space one and have abandoned neighbourhoods of the Sun for ever. A part formed the whole cloud of splinters moving on a  different elliptic trajectories round the Sun, saving as a common moment a part of moment of movement   of the blown up stars. As has predetermined that now planets rotate round the Sun in a plane close with a plane of rotation of the Sun.
      Memory about of this explosion  today is saved and in orbits of comets. In a Fig. 5 we see these orbits. Whether the truth, this picture very much reminds of the explosion. The sizes of splinters were from hundreds kilometers, up to sizes of a mote. Besides with this mass of a debris there was also gas which has stayed from that gas, which was falling from the Sun on a neutron star. The denseness of splinters in space was large, therefore they frequently collided. As a splinters was collided, they was destroyed, decreased in sizes. If the relative velocities were not so large, other splinters were integrated, first of all on the largest debris, having begun shaping  of planets.

Gradually  the large mass of a debris was focused in a plane of an ecliptic, that is in a plane of a modern position of orbits of planets. Gas component was pushed aside on a rim by a solar wind, and there have begun to be formed planets the giants.
     So, a nucleus of the future planet the Earth became one from the largest debris of the white dwarf, size about a thousand of kilometers. On it more small-sized debris of all kinds dropped, to create the shell, gradually having finished a size of the Earth approximately up to present. The process of shaping of the Earth (as well as remaining planets) from a moment of collision of a neutron star and white dwarf has taken time about a billion of years.
       It is necessary to mark, that the splinters of a neutron star after  of its explosion were very radioactive. For a billion years short-lived isotopes have turned  not radioactive. But long-lived, such as the isotopes of uranium and torium, to a moment of shaping of planets were saved and were by one from sources of heating of the Earth entrails.
      So, entrails of the Earth have begun to be warmed up. Except for radioactive elements, sources of heating was energy from gravitational compression of the Earth, and, at the first stage, energy of a falling meteorites. After temperature inside the Earth became enough high, entrails begin to melt. More heavy components  to be lowered downwards. Accordingly more light to be lifted up. So to be formed a nucleus, cover and crust.  The geological history of the Earth began.

While  crust was thin, very much frequently it was broken by magma, therefore all Earth, was covered with volcanos. On the Earth the meteorites dropped as a rain. Therefore surface of the Earth was covered with craters. Beginnings to form atmosphere of the Earth consisting in main of nitrogen, water vapor, carbon dioxidal. There are very little of oxygen. The water on a surface was not, it almost all evaporated. This period of development was named as a lunar. It last about 500-700 millions years.
    That to us would be farther more conveniently to trace a course of processes on the Earth, we should take advantage of a periodization, accepted in science. The kinds of a periodization are shown in a Fig. 6. So, the lunar period was followed  nuclear by a phase called so because in this period was completed in main shaping of a nucleus. This phase too approximately 500-700 millions years.
     As we already spoke, melted magma is in movement. The centers of a melt magma move from below to up,  with themselves light components was to bring. It is named zonal smelting. In an outcome the differentiation, that is separation, substance of the Earth happened. Differently this process is named as gravitational differentiation. At the expense of born on the top of easy rocks was formed crust (first of all basalt), the plenty of gases and water was freed. The atmosphere and hydroorb was formed. Magma is lifted, then, having cooled down, is lowered. The full turn-over (called a tecton-magmatic cycle) happens for 200 mill.ears. Thus, crust was generated approximately 4 billions of years back.
      In an outcome zonal smelting (and it is possible also of other processes) on a surface of Earth there were large ring structures which have been filled in with a lava of basalt structure. The typical forms of a contour were meteoritic craters of various sizes being basic elements of a lunar landscape. The forms of a surfaces created in lunar era, completely are erased by consequent grandiose geological processes that connected not only with internal, but also with external forces, first of all with effect on terrestrial crust by the atmosphere and hydroorb.
                     During zonal smelting was selected 1.6Ч1024 g of water. This amount almost corresponds to modern volume of a hydroorb.  The water as a steam in the beginning was included into structure of volcanic gases, which contain also carbonic acid, ammonia, nitrogen, hydrogen, rare gases and other junctions that is characteristic and for modern volcanos(HCL,HF,H2S etc.). The hydroorb was derivated after a surface terrestrial crust and high layers of atmosphere was cooled below +100°C. Appeared on a surface of the Earth of the sea, lake, the rivers have begun intensively to destroy the derivated forms of a contour, in an outcome at the bottom of reservoirs first were derivated sedimental rocks. That interaction endo- and the exohenetik processes thus was installed which has determined further development and shaping terrestrial crust on stretch of its long history.
            In a lunar stage of development of the Earth the primary atmosphere is formed also which on the structure came nearer to volcanic gases and included water vapors, methane, carbonic acid, nitrogen and other components. Therefore, if the beginning of lunar era is a beginning of shaping terrestrial crust, its an extremity it is possible is to considered by origin of a hydroorb and primary atmosphere.
            In primary atmosphere and hydroorb that chemical evolution of elements happened which in consequent has come in origin of life on the Earth and formation of a biosphere. The proof of a possibility of formation during natural evolution of organic substances from inorganic is the synthesis DNA in laboratory conditions.
     The seas and continents. One from major problems of development of the Earth, is the problem, concerning which the certain answer is not present until now. It is a problem, how the continents and oceans were generated. Long time there was a dispute between the supporters fixism and mobilism. A first ones was consider, that the shaping of structures of crust was happened by a raising and lowering of separate sites terrestrial crust. The set of the rather useful theories is here again developed, basic of which the theory geosinclinalias is. Another scientists (it is considered that this theory by Austrian  scientist A.Vagener was worked out) not to be denying existing  theoretical basis , but that a continents are moving are supposing. Now the theory  of Vagener already at anybody does not call objections. Essence of it we easily shall understand if to compare two Figures: a Fig. 7 and Fig. 8.
     From this theory follows, that at one time all continents, which we see on our planet, are represented one continent. It name is Gondvana. And Europe and Asia represented by separate plates. It is known, that in the past they were divided by ocean. Residual middle-ocean mountain range which are the Ural mountains.

Then continent Gondvana   begin  to destroying by a separate blocks, which become to drift in the different directions and this drift was not completed until now.
     Also there is a problem, how was happened, that on the one side of planet is the huge continent, and on other -  was  Huger ocean. 
            But this is impossible. During gravitational differentiation the crust should be organized is uniformly on all surface of a planet. The water  should cover the crust uniformly with a stratum approximately in three kilometers.  A conditions for origin and the more so for the development of life practically are absent. The combination of a land, oceans and atmosphere for existence of life on the Earth is completely necessary.
   On all visibility, there was any event of a disastrous character, that have, generally speaking a casual character. While the science does not give the certain explanation, what it was an event. We need to understand with this problem for to answer our main problem - whether one we in the universe.
     Some helps can be found that was stated above. The first help is a moon. Really, moon turned  to us always by one party. It speaks that the centre of mass does not coincide geometric centre. Its denseness is close denseness of Earth crust and structure of rocks, from which it is combined, is very close to structure of rocks of the Earth. The structure  of its surface has also large difference, whether we see  its visible side, or reverse. There are also other features, which speak that moon, is faster than everything, at one time was a part of the Earth.  There is also other help is a Venus. Venus moving round the Sun in such a manner that when, moving on an ellipse, approaches closely to the Earth, it turn to us always by one side.
     That supposition is not deprived of a sense, that earlier orbit of Venus was more stretched out, and orbit of the Earth, probably, also. And was stretched out so, that orbits of Venus and Earth were intersected. It is quite possible, that the planets were so pulled together, that the part crust of the Earth was broken. This could promote at that, that the rotation rate of the Earth in initial period of shaping was much more, than now. Probably, somewhere about 10 hours. In those times the volcanic activity was considerably more intensive, therefore magma was more liquid.  When  forces from  Venus a beginning the raising of crust the pressure in magma sharply has decreased, and as the result a emanation of gases as explosion was happened. It  throw up a  crust part and magma. Something in this kind has taken place and on Venus. In this connection some asymmetry has appeared.  
      Crust and magma from the Earth under an operation of an own attraction has acquired the form of a full-sphere.  Also has remained on orbit with the Earth. As to the Earth, on that place, where was separated crust with a part magma, the huge wound was formed. By fluidity of magma the Earth has restored the spherical form.  The  crust restoration  was beginning, but as the main process of differentiation already has passed, crust became thin, and now is approximately 4 km. Moon has carried away a part of a torque of the Earth, therefore it began to rotate much more slowly - approximately for 20 hours. Orbits both at the Earth, and at Venus were a little changed also.
      Magma, in one places is lifted, in other is lowered, going along a surface of a planet of a thousand of kilometers. In this connection Gondvana, the rest of the crust, has broken up on separate parts - continents, which are moving in the different directions for approximately three billions of years and at last have accepted that position, which we see now.
      Besides, there is some  problem, which not so has attracted on itself attention. Namely, ratio of squares of a land and oceans. Really, the relation of square of a land and oceans is approximately equal 1/3.  The relation of a denseness of water and crust too is approximately equal 1/3. On all visibility this fact has huge significance. Really, the depth of oceans is approximately equal 4 km. The flat areas of a land are elevated in relation to a level of water at oceans approximately of meters on forty. That it to present more obviously, let's assume, that we have the glass that  have poured by water, that the edges of a glass is above the water approximately on a millimeter. Obviously, that if absolutely a little bit to add waters, is poured through an edge. Same can happen and in planetary scale.
      During a geological history of the Earth the water was added constantly. There were short-term modifications on a level of oceans, but disastrous flood was not.  There can be a reason of such stability. It is possible to accept for true that of a reason, that when the amount of water at oceans becomes more, the common pressure will increase on bottom of oceans. Magma  is displaced under continents and  raises them. And, if the ratio of densenesses of water and crust, both ratio of squares of a land and oceans is equal 1/3, the land will be lifted so, that compensates a raising of water at oceans. That is the exceeding of a land above a surface of ocean remain same, that was and earlier. And the depth of ocean will increase.
     This phenomenon has essence significance in a problem of development of life on the Earth. Is valid, if it was not, the water already for a long time would fill land, and further than marine organisms the process of development of life would not go. About any reasonable life and the more so about a civilization and the speech could not be. Thus, during formation of moon, from the Earth such  should be separated the mass, that the relation of a land and oceans was 1/3. And it already rather rare concurrence, in connection with which the probability of origin of a civilization is essentially reduced. Hereafter we shall try to evaluate this probability, and now briefly we shall consider process of development of life on the Earth.

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