USAGE FREQUENCY AND PURCHASE MOTIVES OF CONSUMER PRODUCTS: A COMPARISON BETWEEN CANADA AND JAPAN

Emmanuel J. Chéron*

University of Quebec at Montreal

Tetsuo Sugimoto

University of Shizuoka

Hideo Hayashi

Kansai University, Osaka

*Department of Administrative Sciences, University of Quebec at Montreal, P.O. Box 6192, Station Centre-ville, Montreal (Quebec) Canada, H3C 4R2, Tel: (514) 987-3000 #7897, Fax: (514) 987-0422, E-mail: echeron@hotmail.com

The authors thank Heidi Hadlich-Chrisman and the three anonymous reviewers for many helpful comments.

Abstract: This study examines the relative usage in Canada and in Japan of nineteen goods and services. The relative importance of four different motivations for consumption is also described. These are personal enhancement, enjoyment, defence against threats, and basic necessities (maintenance). A quota sample of 604 consumers in Canada and 251 consumers in Japan was examined using correspondence analysis. Analyses of variance with country, age, and sex as dependent variables were conducted with respect to use and purchase motivation with and without blocking for product. Country and age were found to have a significant effect on product usage but no significant country effect was detected for purchase motivation. A graphical display of product usage shows distinct consumption patterns for Canadian and Japanese consumer groups. However, a graphical display of consumption motives of the same product shows that they appear to be similar in Canada and Japan. In spite of this similarity of purchase motives, the successful distribution of the goods and services studied is discussed with respect to environmental factors and marketing mix considerations specific to each country.

Key words: Cross-cultural comparison, usage and purchase motives of goods and services, correspondence analysis, marketing implications

The recent view of the world economy as a triad favors a renewed interest in global marketing strategies to gain a competitive advantage through economies of scale. However, a global marketing strategy can be subdivided into two kinds of approaches. First, some companies adopt an integrated strategy with centralized R & D and standardized products, capitalising on cumulative production volume from foreign manufacturing capacity. Other companies use a multi-domestic approach with each local unit setting its own competitive strategy and with a coordination committee setting guidelines for finance, marketing and some R & D and operational decisions (Dussart, 1993). New challenges for the success of multinationals are to integrate efficiency, responsiveness and disseminating know how within the constraints of corporate culture (Bartlett and Ghoshal, 1987). The evaluation of the degree of responsiveness to cross-cultural market differences is therefore a relevant element of the multinational company's strategy.

Advocates of global marketing have asserted that products and brands can be marketed using the same marketing mix in all nations, irrespective of cultural differences (Levitt, 1983; Lenroe, 1984; Ohmae, 1985). An alternative view implies the modification of a marketing strategy to suit local conditions. Eric Hauter (1984) is quoted as saying that marketers must "think globally and act locally". This second approach is more consistent with recent research indicating the persistence of different consumption patterns not only across countries, but also among regions or cultures within countries (Rhea, Garland and Crawford, 1989; Muller, 1989; Hui, Joy, Kim and Laroche, 1993). One challenge is to identify if differences in product class use are related to descriptive variables and/or the purchase purpose indicated by the consumer.

Conceptual Framework

One aspect of marketing strategy formulation takes into account differences in not only good or service usage, but also consumption purposes. For example, descriptive demographic variables can help identify target markets for specific products. Hence, differences in usage vs. non-usage of a certain product class between countries may be substantially explained by demographic variables. Following the question of "who are our consumers?" is the question of "why do they buy our goods or services?"

The basic premise underlying consumer choice behavior is the existence of a purposive model linking consumer behavior to marketing strategy. This model is based on the proposition that consumer behavior can be subsumed under four major purposes and that marketing strategy should be adapted to each purpose. Each consumption purpose is consistent with various components of models proposed by Katona (1953); Katz (1960); Maslow (1970); Hanna (1980); Sheth, Newman and Gross (1991). These four motivations are: 1) Personal enhancement, 2) Enjoyment, 3) Defence against threats and 4) Basic necessities, or Maintenance products. (Woods, Chéron and Kim, 1985). Thus, usage patterns among countries can be examined for differences attributable to the relative importance of consumption motivations. As an example, more orange juice consumers may be found in Canada than in Japan and in addition, orange juice consumption in Canada is higher among young women. Knowledge of the relative importance of the four consumption motivations in each country will be helpful for orange juice marketers. The strategic implications associated with the four consumption motivations are as follows:

1) The Enhancement motivation:

Personal Enhancement is the use of a product to improve or to advance the individual psychologically, socially or physically. In Sheth, Newman and Gross (1991), this motivation is subdivided into social value (utility acquired from an association of a product with a group with which one identifies oneself) and epistemic value (utility acquired from the capacity of a product to arouse curiosity, provide novelty or satisfy a desire for knowledge). Products or services bought for enhancement purposes are associated with high expectations. The promise of future ego, social or physical improvements is a typical selling point. Because expectations tend to be unrealistically high, most promises cannot be realized and consumers are constantly in search of better promises. Since consumers highly value enhancement, these products are not price-sensitive. Frequent product modification and replacement is necessary to support better performance promises which must be communicated by continued promotion. Product and promotional flexibility and frequent new introductions are essential to maintain viability in goods and services that promise enhancement. New hybrid products such as part drug, part cosmetic "cosmeceuticals" are good examples, such as an anti-wrinkle drug launched recently by Johnson and Johnson (The Economist, April 17^th, 1993a, p. 62).

2) The Enjoyment motivation:

A consumer is said to be pursuing an enjoyment consumption purpose when the product is used for fun or pleasure. This motivation is closely related to emotional value and a product's capacity to arouse feelings or affective states (Sheth, Newman and Gross, 1991).

Products purchased for enjoyment must provide sensory arousal, which is diminished by repeated use due to sensory habituation. Hence, consumers seek variety and introduction of new enjoyment products should be frequent. This requires production and promotion flexibility. An example is the variety of food service counters sharing a common table space in shopping malls.

3) The Defence motivation:

A purpose is defensive when the product is used to avert or to minimize some threat. This purpose is associated with conditional value (Sheth, Newman and Gross, 1991). The situational aspect of conditional value, such as emergencies, coincides with the defence motivation. These products must provide anxiety alleviation to maintain consumer interest (vitamins against nutritional deficit, for example). Thus, promotion by the seller based on axiety may be necessary. Since these products are sometimes purchased without consumption (for example, insurance), product performance is secondary to anxiety reduction. Promises of prevention against hypothetical events are critical in marketing these products.

4) The Maintenance motivation:

A consumer is said to be motivated by maintenance when the product is considered a basic necessity to always have available. This motivation is similar to the functional consumption value (Sheth, Newman and Gross, 1991). Consumers are quite price sensitive to products used for maintenance purposes, and they respond to private or generic branding. In Canada, private branding gained popularity at first with non-food maintenance products such as detergents or paper towels. With the recent recession, discount pricing under a retailer brand has in fact spread to many product categories, not just those used for maintenance purposes (The Economist, June 5^th, 1993b, p. 69).

Research Objectives

The objective of the research is to improve and extend a previous study by Woods, Chéron and Kim (1985). In that research, purposes for purchasing 19 products and services were compared with convenience samples of women from the U.S., Korea and Canada. Simple contingency tables of purposes by countries and purposes by age groups were examined for each individual product separately.

In this research the same nineteen products and services are used (see Appendix 1) but larger quota samples are involved comprising both male and female respondents and involving the two countries of Canada and Japan. They were examined with respect to product/usage using correspondence analysis. The global usage structure and consumption motivations of all goods and services studied in relation to sex and age groups in both countries may be shown on graphs using this multivariate statistical analysis. In addition, the relative effects of country, sex and age on product usage is statistically tested with an analysis of variance. Finally, the relative effects of country and consumption motivation on product purchase is also tested. Hence, the first objective is to quantify the relative market penetration of the nineteen goods and services in Canada and in Japan according to age groups and sex. The second objective compares the relative importance of consumption motivations with respect to the nineteen products in the two countries.

Method

Survey design

In Canada the sample was collected in the Quebec City area (mainly French-speaking), and in the Hamilton, Burlington and Mississauga areas of Ontario (mainly English-speaking). In Japan the sample came from the Shizuoka area.

Students contacting friends and relatives with a response rate above 90 % administered the surveys. A quota sampling procedure was applied which constrained the sample from each area as being proportional to the latest census figures with respect to sex and six age groups (15-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45‑54, 55-64 and 65 years old and over). The survey was conducted during March 1991 (Quebec), October 1991 (Ontario), and June 1992 (Japan).

Survey instrument

The questionnaire was self-administered and consisted of one 8.5 X 14 inch page. Respondents were told that their answers would be kept strictly confidential. After a short introduction stating that the objective of the survey was to identify purposes for buying products and services, sixteen statements were listed in association with the four major consumption motivations presented in the conceptual section of this paper. The specific formulation of the questions was the following in the English version of the questionnaire: "From the following list of possible reasons for buying a product, please circle the number corresponding to all your reasons for buying or using that product". The four consumption motivation types studied were operationalized as indicated in Table 1.

Table 1

Specific statements associated with each of the four consumption motivations

1. Enhancement:	Improves one's appearances, adds to beauty, brings out personality Helps my image Makes me feel better To please someone else (children, other family, friends) Makes me more attractive For socializing
2. Enjoyment:	Enjoy it (tastes good, smells good, fun, relaxing, etc.) Gives me a lift
3. Defence:	Prevents illness, protects health Helps prevent offending others Provides escape
4. Maintenance:	A basic necessity to keep going Convenient, quick, easy to use Habit Just to have on hand

Respondents were then shown a list of nineteen goods and services (see Appendix 1) and asked to circle one or several of the above statements in association with each product. In addition to the fifteen statements, "don't use" was added as a sixteenth choice, which identified non-user respondents. Descriptive data on the six age categories and sex were also solicited. In Canada, the questionnaire was prepared in the two official languages (English and French) and the same matrix format (19 products by 16 statements) was used. In Japan, the translation was prepared and presented in a transposed matrix format (16 statements by 19 products). Vertical rather than horizontal reading of products and services were deemed to be more natural for Japanese respondents. Translation nuances were resolved by extensive discussions between Japanese nationals and bilingual (English and French) Canadians. All translators had accumulated extended managerial marketing experiences and several business visits to the other country .

Data description

The characteristics of both samples by sex and age group appear in Table 2. The six age categories were collapsed into two groups according to a pre or post-war birthdate. The status of "baby boomer" associated with people born after the war (under 45 years old) is justified by many studies showing different consumption behavior both in Canada and Japan (Muller, Kahle, and Chéron, 1993; Anderson and Wadkins, 1992).

Table 2

Samples by country, sex and age group

	Canada N = 604						Japan N = 251
Age group	Men	%	Women	%	Total	%	Men	%	Women	%	Total	%
15 - 44 45 and over	204 91	69.2 30.8	198 111	64.1 35.9	402 202	66.6 33.4	81 41	66.4 33.6	86 43	66.7 33.3	167 84	66.5 33.5
Total	295	100.0	309	100.0	604	100.0	122	100.0	129	100.0	251	100.0

As can be seen in Table 2, the absolute number of women of 45 years old and over is slightly above the number of men in both countries. About two thirds of respondents in both samples are 44 years old or below and about one third is 45 and over.

Descriptive results on percentages of users of each product by country, sex and age group are shown in Appendix 1. A cursory examination of Appendix 1 reveals some differences in percentage of usage with respect to products. For example, more beer is consumed by men than women both in Canada and Japan. There are also differences between countries; for example, breakfast cereals are consumed less in Japan across all sex and age categories. An examination of the average percentages of use of all nineteen products together indicates that the average percentage of users is lower in Japan.

For of each product, Appendix 2 presents the average rounded buying scores (multiplied by 100) for each product and service by country and the four consumption motivations studied. These buying scores were calculated for each user as the average number of statements selected within each of the four consumption motivations with respect to each product, and then averaged across users. The patterns of buying scores between Canada and Japan are somewhat similar. For example, candy, soft drinks or musical recordings are bought mostly for enjoyment purposes in both countries. Examination of average buying scores for all nineteen products together reveal that the relative importance of the consumption motovations differs in Canada and Japan. The Enjoyment motivation is followed by the Maintenance motivation in Canada but by the Defense motivation in Japan. This may reflect a somewhat more risk averse Japanese consumer because of the need for harmony in a social context.

Results

The multivariate statistical technique of Correspondence Analysis (CA) was used (Hoffman and Franke, 1986) to examine more closely the data in Appendix 1 and 2. CA summarizes multivariate data and describes relationships among categories. The procedure reconciles row and column percentages by displaying differences from expectations using a perceptual map. The solutions reveal dimensions of perceptions by defining metric distances and plotting points in the same space, thus simplifying the interpretation of data matrices. CA can be considered a dual generalized principal components analysis (Greenacre, 1984).

Data were analysed with the perceptual mapping software Mapwise (version 2.04). The main difference among mathematically equivalent approaches is the scaling of the points along the principal axes. Mapwise plots row and column points in the same space using the standard coordinates method (Goodnow, 1988). Then the solution is rescaled using the principal coordinates method. A final step is required to be able to compare scores within and between rows and columns. The scores are multiplied by the square root of the corresponding eigenvalues (Weller and Romney, 1990). Mapwise solutions can be interpreted using distances between the points since they are scaled in Euclidean metric distance.

Figure 1 shows the correspondence analysis of the data on the frequency of product use by country, sex and age group. The first two dimensions of the reduced space account for 64 % and 19 % of the variance respectively, leaving only 17 % unaccounted for by the first two taken together.

Figure 1

Examination of Figure 1 reveals that product usage is different in Canada and Japan. Canadian consumer groups appear on the left side and Japanese consumers on the right side of Figure 1. Thus, products and services on the left hand side of Figure 1 have a more frequent incidence of use by Canadians, the most extreme case being breakfast cereals. The male consumer groups appear in the upper right part of the graph (using automobiles more frequently than the female consumer groups), and the female consumer groups appear in the lower left part of the graph (using detergent more often than the male consumer groups). The pattern of younger (under 45 years old) vis-a-vis older (45 and above) consumers is more complex and should be examined in association with specific products.

With Mapwise the solution can be interpreted in terms of distances among the points. Hence, products or services that are close (far) from each other show a similar (different) usage pattern. The same applies to distances among the consumer groups and between a consumer group and a product. For example, candy and aspirin are close together showing a similar usage pattern; jeans and detergent are far from each other indicating a different usage pattern. The Canadian consumer groups are closer to each other than the Japanese consumer groups, indicating a more homogeneous usage pattern for Canadians across sex and age groups. For each specific consumer group, products that are frequently or infrequently used can be readily identified. For example, young Canadian men are frequent users of soft drinks and infrequent users of detergent; older Japanese women are frequent users of detergent and infrequent users of jeans.

In order to estimate the relative effects of country, sex, and age on product usage, a three-way analysis of variance was conducted on the data in Appendix 1. The analysis with the nineteen products studied is presented in Table 3 and shows that there are significant main effects for country and age only and that none of the interactions are significant. The eta² statistics reveal that the relative importance of the main effects is dominated by country (18.49 %) followed by age with only 2.89 %. The total variation (R²) explained by the model is 22.59 %. The stability of the results were checked in two ways. First, the two products showing the most dissimilar usage pattern (cereals and deodorants) were removed from the sample. Second, the remaining seventeen products were randomly split in half using odd-numbered products for the first half and even-numbered products for the second half. The three additional analyses are indicated in Table 4, which shows the same conclusions as Table 3.

Table 3

Three-way ANOVA testing the effect of country,

sex and age on usage

Source	Sum of squares	D.F.	Mean squares	F	Sig. of F	(Eta)^2
Country (C) Sex (S) Age (A) C x S C x A S x A C x S x A Residual	13140.90 788.06 1967.76 476.41 161.55 219.12 10.26 52689.15	1 1 1 1 1 1 1 144	13140.90 788.06 1967.76 476.41 161.55 219.12 10.26 365.90	35.91** 2.15^NS 5.38* 1.30^NS .443^NS .60^NS .03^NS -	.000 .144 .022 .256 .507 .440 .867 -	18.49 % 1.21 % 2.89 % - - - -
Total	69453.21	151	459.96	-	-	22.59 %

**Significant at level < .01; *Significant at level < .05; ^NS Non significant

Since no significant interactions were observed, a second analysis of variance was conducted with product as a blocking factor. Results indicated the following relative importance of effects: product (eta² = 44.2 %), country (30.5 %), age (6.2 %) and sex (2.6 %). Thus, the products studied and the country appear to account for most of the variation in usage. Since sex and age were not dominant factors, consumption motivation was examined using a product-by-country approach (see Appendix 2).

Table 4

Stability of the effect of country, sex and age on usage

	Cereals and deodorants removed (n=17)			First random half (n=9)			Second random half (n=8)
Source	F	Sig. of F	(Eta)^2	F	Sig. of F	(Eta)^2	F	Sig. of F	(Eta)^2
Country (C) Sex (S) Age (A) C x S C x A S x A C x S x A	21.93** 1.44^NS 5.78* 1.00^NS .20^NS .37^NS .00^NS	.000 .232 .018 .319 .652 .544 .983	13.69% 1.00% 3.61% - - - -	13.19** 6.39* 5.00* 1.77^NS .12^NS .01^NS .01^NS	.001 .014 .029 .188 .733 .914 .930	14.44% 7.29% 5.29% - - - -	8.80** 1.10^NS 1.19^NS .00^NS .10^NS .67^NS .01^NS	.004 .298 .279 .990 .758 .417 .935	12.96% 1.69% 1.69% - - - -
Total			18.30%			27.02%			16.34%

**Significant at level < .01; *Significant at level < .05; ^NS Non significant

The correspondence analysis conducted on consumption motivation by country is shown in Figure 2. The interpretation of Figure 2 is similar to that of Figure 1. The first two dimensions of the reduced space account for respectively 48 % and 25 % of the variance. The four major consumption motivations studied are associated with different products. For example, "Enjoyment" is closely associated with beer, candy, soft drinks and coffee. Furthermore, the two countries tend to be close together with respect to the same motivation for purchasing specific subgroups of products. For example, both Canadian and Japanese consumers perceive detergents and automobile insurance as "Maintenance" products. "Defense" and "Enhancement" purposes are somewhat less similar in Canada and Japan since as we have seen in Appendix 2, the "Defense" motive tends to play a more significant role in Japan for the consumption of socially sensitive products. However, products such as vitamins, deodorants and toothpaste are mostly bought for "Defense" or prevention purposes both in Canada and Japan. Colognes/perfumes and shampoo appear associated with "Enhancement" in both countries.

Figure 2

To estimate the relative effect of country and purchase motive on average buying scores, a two-way analysis of variance was conducted on the data in Appendix 2. The analysis on the nineteen goods and services presented in Table 5 indicates that the main effect of country and the interaction are both insignificant. The effect of purchase is, however, significant and accounts for 17 % of the variation in the data. The stability of the results were checked in the same manner as in Table 4. For each of the three tests (without cereals and deodorants, first random half, and second random half), the effect of country was not significant. The effect of motivation was significant and accounted for 17.64 %, 23 % and 16 % of the variation respectively. The four consumption motivations with respect to the goods and services studied do not appear to differ between Canada and Japan.

Table 5

Two-way ANOVA test on the effect of country

and purchase motive on buying scores

Source	Sum of squares	D.F.	Mean squares	F	Sig. of F	(Eta)^2
Country (C) Motivation (M) C x M Residual	6.74 3282.24 618.90 15158.53	1 3 3 144	6.74 1094.08 206.30 105.27	.064^NS 10.34** 1.96^NS -	.801 .000 .123 -	0 % 17 % - -
Total	19066.40	151	126.27	-	-	17 %

**Significant at level < .01; ^NS Non significant

Discussion

The first finding of this study is that there are differences between Canada and Japan in the usage of goods and services. The second finding suggests however that purchase motive does not differ between Canada and Japan for each product, consequently, the strategic implications presented in the conceptual framework with respect to each of the four purchase motives could be used in both countries. In addition, since the dominant purchase motivations do not show a marked difference in each country, it could guide the promotion strategy in the two countries.

A limitation of the study is the representativeness of the samples on demographic variables other than sex and age groups. Students in charge of collecting data among friends and relatives may tend to overrepresent people from more educated backgrounds. However, if this bias is similar in Canada and Japan it does not affect the comparison between the two countries. The results may hold for better educated consumer segments in both countries.

Cultural limitations could also be important in this research Japanese respondents are known to have difficulty to use extreme scores on a response scale; therefore; the binary measures used in this study may not be well adapted to Japanese response style. In fact, the average number of purchase motives selected by each respondent was 28,8 in Canada and 23 in Japan, for a difference significant at the 1% level (Z = 5,56). The comparaison of different cultural groups is subject to many biases. An underlying assumption is that all biases (artifacts, measures, context equivalence) do cancel each other out. Separate analyses within each country may reveal different usage patterns; for example, analysis of Canadian data are likely to exhibit some differences between the provinces of Ontario and Quebec (Chéron and Muller, 1993). However, comparing subgroups within a country is not the objective of this study. One must also note that only product class is involved and that using brand names may have elicited more differences in purchase motives. However, using common brand names with comparable marketing mixes in both countries would require an experimental approach with limited external validity.

From a marketing viewpoint, the Japanese market may be seen as less penetrated than the Canadian market for the goods and services involved in the study. However, cultural differences may be strongly at work to slow the interest in products such as breakfast cereals and deodorants. In addition, the study did not measure the intensity of usage and the reported purchase objectives do not reveal the frequency and quantity used.

Even if our study suggests that similar purchase motives are applicable in Canada and Japan, additional marketing mix considerations must be involved to insure a successful product in Canada and Japan. The relative order of consumption motivations of products studied in Canada and Japan is compared in Table 6.

Table 6

Correlation of buying scores between Canada and Japan and ranks of purchase motivations

Products	Canada		Japan	Products	Canada	Japan	Products	Canada	Japan
1.Colognes/perfumes R = .64	1. J* 2. E 3. D,M	J E,D M		8. Orange juice R = .96	1. J 2. D 3. M 4. E	J D M E	15.Paper towels R = .997	1. M 2. D,E,J 3. 4.	M D E,J
2. Autos R = .84	1. M 2. J 3. E,D 4.	M J E D		9. Coffee R = .88	1. J 2. M 3. E 4. D	J D M E	16.Candy R = .85	1. J 2. M 3. E 4. D	J D E M
3. Green vegetables R = .46	1. J 2. D 3. M 4. E	D M J E		10. Vitamins R = .82	1. D 2. J 3. M 4. E	D J M E	17.Soft drinks R = .83	1. J 2. M 3. E 4. D	J D M E
4. Breakfast cereals R = .69	1. J 2. M 3. D 4. E	M J D E		11. Aspirins R = .70	1. E 2. M 3. D 4. J	E,D M J	18.Deodorants R = .33	1. M 2. D 3. E,J 4.	D E J M
5. Toothpaste R = .99	1. D 2. M 3. J,E 4.	D M E J		12. Detergent R = .93	1. M 2. D,J 3. E 4.	M D E J	19.Jeans R = .85	1. J 2. M 3. E 4. D	E,J M D
6. Musical recordings R = .99	1. J 2. D 3. M,E 4.	J D E M		13. Auto Insurance R = .58	1. M 2. D,E,J 3. 4.	M,D J E	Legend: R: Buying scores correlation coefficient between Canada and Japan (n=4)
7. Beer R = .91	1. J 2. M 3. E 4. D	J D M,E		14. Shampoo R = -.26	1. E 2. M 3. J 4. D	M D E J	E: Enhancement *J: Enjoyment D: Defence M: Maintenance

Correlation of buying scores between Canada and Japan over all products (n=19) for:

Enhancement: 0.8510; Enjoyment: 0.8201; Defence: 0.7307; Maintenance: 0.8028

The relative order of purchase motivations for buying in Table 6 is similar in Canada and Japan, except for the "Defence" objective, which tends to be somewhat more important in Japan (11 cases out of 19). The correlation coefficients of buying scores between Canada and Japan for the four consumption motivations appear at the and of Table 6. The lower magnitude of the coefficient for the "Defence" motive (.73) confirms that similarity between Canada and Japan is lower for this motive. For each product, in Table 6, a correlation coefficient was computed between the buying scores for Canada and Japan across the four purchase motives (listed in Appendix 2). Most correlations are positive and high, confirming the similar pattern of purchase motive in both countries. However, since shampoo, deodorants and green vegetables tend to exhibit a less similar pattern, promotional appeals in each country should be adjusted to the locally dominant consumption motivation. For example, the "Defence" purpose is more important for shampoo in Japan than in Canada. This can also be seen in Figure 2. In the area of outdoor activities, the importance of the defence motive is exemplified by the recent success in Japan of three giant indoor resort complexes with man made beaches and snow-capped peaks (The Economist, 1993c, p. 86).

In spite of relatively similar purchase motives in Canada and Japan, many local environmental factors and tactical marketing considerations must be addressed to take advantage of opportunities specific to a particular region. Some examples are: the legal inspection of cars every three years in Japan, the different weather conditions in Canada and Japan, different target markets for the same product, different sizes of packaging, different distribution channels, different focus on price appeal, different promotional appeal and the numerous traditional gift periods in Japan (Green and Alden, 1988). An effective marketing approach requires also the consideration of deeper motivations such as, for example, the national characteristics of honesty, cleanliness and frugality of Japanese consumers. There may be also a desire for convenience and foreign products such as cosmetics and unusual items in Japan. Marketers should be aware that imported products are often tried and tested for the first time in Japan when received as a gift (Dichter, 1988). A new value of self-definition through the purchase of goods is emerging and younger Japanese women are to some extent associated with the shift to a Western mode of consumption behavior as can be seen in Figure 1. One of the reasons might be that a new social value trend called the "Shinjinrui", or "new breed", is at play in Japan and is characterized by more individuality, instant gratification, leisure time activities and looser social ties at home and at work. The recent political restructuring in Japan is also an indication that traditional values focused on economic unity is shifting towards more international involvement, environmental protection and more personal consumption. In spite of this "Westernization", tactical decisions such as the execution of advertising need to be adapted to local conditions. For example, emotional and less rational advertising (especially TV commercials) tends to be more effective with Japanese consumers and research conducted by Ketchum Advertising in Japan shows that consumers are unhappy if an advertisement does not have atmosphere (Anderson and Watkins, 1992).

Marketers interested in the Canadian market should be aware that the North American Free Trade Agreement is being gradually implemented and that important differences still exist between the United States and Canada. For example, the Canadian market size is approximately one-tenth of the size of the United States. The Canadian population is also unevenly geographically distributed, thus increasing distribution costs. Multilingualism with two official languages (English and French) and sizable concentration of other ethnic groups is also an important consideration for marketing products and services in Canada. In addition to the environmental and legal requirements specific to the Canadian market, differences of values and life styles should also be taken into account.

Conclusion

The objectives of this paper were: 1) to identify the degree of usage of a variety of goods and services in Canada and in Japan in relation to age and sex; 2) to find consumer motives for using these products and services. The relative importance of four purchase motivations (Enhancement, Enjoyment, Defence and Maintenance) were compared in Canada and Japan. The findings revealed that the percentage of respondents who were users of the products studied differed mainly between countries and somewhat between age/sex groups. Some strong cultural differences were noted with lower percentages of users in Japan, especially for breakfast cereals, and deodorants, colognes/perfumes. Consumption motives with respect to the nineteen products studied were found to be mostly similar in Canada and Japan, with a somewhat higher relative importance of the "Defence" motive in Japan. This may reflect a stronger "social" meaning of consumption in Japan.

Appendix 1

Percentages of users for each product and service by country, sex and age group (under 45, 45 and over)

	Canada N = 604				Japan N = 251
	Younger Men (204)	Older Men (91)	Younger Women (198)	Older Women (111)	Younger Men (81)	Older Men (41)	Younger Women (86)	Older Women (43)
1. Colognes/perfumes	80.4	75.8	87.9	83.8	35.8	31.7	73.3	60.5
2. Autos	87.7	90.1	78.8	59.5	85.2	90.2	65.1	48.8
3. Green vegetables	93.1	97.8	94.9	94.6	80.2	82.9	97.6	100.0
4. Breakfast cereals	67.6	73.6	79.5	80.0	13.7	12.5	35.7	23.3
5. Toothpaste	98.5	92.1	100.0	96.4	90.1	82.9	95.3	93.0
6. Musical recordings	89.2	64.8	89.8	57.7	88.7	56.1	82.6	58.1
7. Beer	83.2	68.1	70.6	36.0	84.0	85.4	67.1	69.8
8. Orange juice	90.7	81.3	91.9	88.3	61.7	56.1	75.6	66.7
9. Coffee	69.6	87.9	75.0	90.1	77.8	68.3	82.6	67.4
10. Vitamins	54.9	47.3	64.1	61.3	31.3	53.7	44.2	44.2
11. Aspirin	73.0	72.5	85.9	77.5	45.7	51.2	74.4	67.4
12. Laundry detergent	82.4	78.0	95.9	96.4	60.5	53.7	91.9	97.7
13. Auto insurance	84.8	89.0	74.2	60.4	84.0	85.0	57.6	46.5
14. Shampoo/hair care	98.0	93.3	100.0	98.2	90.0	85.4	100.0	97.7
15. Paper towels	70.1	78.9	81.3	92.8	23.5	31.7	52.4	47.6
16. Candy	69.1	71.4	79.7	77.5	51.9	48.8	88.4	62.8
17. Soft drinks	87.7	79.8	84.2	82.0	80.0	53.7	65.1	48.8
18. Deodorants	95.6	94.5	97.5	91.0	19.8	12.2	65.1	20.9
19. Jeans	97.1	74.7	96.5	70.9	77.5	19.5	76.7	38.1
Average percentages	82.9	79.5	85.7	78.7	62.2	55.8	73.2	61.0

Appendix 2

Average rounded buying scores (x 100) for each product and service by country and the four consumption motivations

	Canada (Users only)				Japan (Users only)
	Enhancement	Enjoy- ment	Defence	Mainte- nance	Enhancement	Enjoy- ment	Defence	Mainte- nance
1. Colognes/perfumes	19	36	6	6	20	24	20	2
2. Autos	4	11	4	29	10	27	8	30
3. Green vegetables	2	26	23	10	1	9	27	21
4. Breakfast cereals	2	25	13	15	3	12	10	17
5. Toothpaste	11	11	23	19	5	3	37	22
6. Musical recordings	6	38	16	6	6	52	25	4
7. Beer	11	34	6	12	8	42	15	8
8. Orange juice	2	35	17	11	4	29	9	6
9. Coffee	3	42	1	17	3	41	15	10
10. Vitamins	4	8	27	7	2	21	28	5
11. Aspirin	12	1	8	10	12	5	12	7
12. Laundry detergent	3	5	5	28	3	1	12	28
13. Auto insurance	1	1	1	26	1	2	17	17
14.Shampoo/hair care	22	13	9	18	13	7	23	20
15. Paper towels	1	1	1	34	1	1	3	29
16. Candy	6	36	1	12	5	36	13	4
17. Soft drinks	6	35	1	14	3	31	12	6
18. Deodorants	14	14	18	19	9	7	30	5
19. Jeans	13	22	2	21	15	15	4	13
Average scores (rounded)	7	21	10	17	7	19	17	13

References

Anderson, L. and M. Wadkins (1992), "The New Breed in Japan: Consumer Culture", Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, Vol. 9(2), 146-153.

Bartlett, C.A. and S. Ghoshal (1987), "Managing across Broders: New Strategic Requirements", Sloan Management Review (Summer), Vol. 28, No. 4, 7-17.

Chéron, E.J. and T.E. Muller (1993), "Relative Importance of Values as Determinants of Ownership Patterns: Comparisons Between the Canadian Provinces of Ontario and Quebec", Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Vol. 5, No. 3, 37-53.

Dichter, E. (1988), "Motivating the Japanese Consumer: An In Depth Study", Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Vol. 1(2), 121-133.

Dussart, C. (1993), "Globalisation: sens et contresens", Decision Marketing, N.0, mai, 51-59.

Goodnow, W.E. (1988), Mapwise, version 2.04, Clarendon Hills: Market Action Research Software Inc.

Green, R.T. and Alden, D. (1988), "Functional Equivalence in Cross-Cultural Consumer Behavior: Gift Giving in Japan and the United States", Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 5(2), 155-168.

Greenacre, M.J. (1984), Theory and Applications of Correspondence Analysis, London: Academic Press.

Hanna, J.G. (1980), "A Typology of Consumer Needs", in Research in Marketing, Vol. 3, Jagdish N. Sheth, ed., JAI Press, Greenwich, Conn., 83-104.

Hauter, E. (1984), "Modular Marketing Cracks International Markets", Advertising Age (April 27), 10.

Hoffman, D.L. and G.R. Franke (1986), "Correspondence Analysis: Graphical Representation of Categorical Data in Marketing Research", Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 23, No 3 (August) 213-227.

Hui, M., Joy, A., Kim, C. and M. Laroche (1993), "Equivalence of Lifestyle Dimensions Across Four Major Subcultures in Canada", Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Vol. 5, No 3, 15-35.

Katona, G.C. (1953), "Rational Behavior and Economic Behavior", Psychological Review, 60 (September), 307-318.

Katz, D. (1960), "The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes", Public Opinion, Q. 24 (Summer), 163-204.

Lenroe, M.M. (1984), "Mapping New Strategy for World Brands", Advertising Age (November 1), 140-43.

Levitt, T. (1983), "The Globalization of Markets", Harvard Business Review (May-June), 61(3), 92-102.

Maslow, A.H. (1970), Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed. New York: Harper and Row.

Muller, T.E. (1989), "The Two Nations of Canada vs The Nine Nations of North America: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Consumers' Personal Values", Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Vol. 1(4), 57-79.

Muller, T.E., Kahle, L. and E.J. Chéron (1992), "Value Trends and Demand Forecasts for Canada's Aging Baby Boomers", Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, Vol. 9(4), 194-304.

Ohmae, K. (1985), Triad Power: The Coming Shape of Global Competition, New York: Free Press.

Rhea, M.J., Garland, B.C. and J.C. Crawford (1989), "International Intermarket Segmentation: The U.S. - Japanese Markets", Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Vol. 2(2), 75-89.

Sheth, J.N., B.I. Newman and Barbara L. Gross (1991), "Why We Buy What We Buy: A Theory of Consumption Values", Journal of Business Research, 22, 159-170.

The Economist (1993a), "Mirror, mirror", April 17^th, 62.

The Economist (1993b), "Shoot out at the check-out", June 5^th, 69-72.

The Economist (1993c), "Surfing indoors", December 18^th, 86.

Weller, S.C. and A.K. Romney (1990), Metric Scaling: Correspondance Analysis, Newbury Park: Sage Publications.

Woods, W.A., E.J. Chéron and D.M. Kim (1985), "Strategic Implications of Differences in Consumer Purposes for Purchasing in Three Global Markets", in Global Perspectives in Marketing edited by Erdener Kaynak, New York : Praeger Publishers, Chapter 12, 155-172.