WHAT did we call ourselves before Columbus came? . . . In every single tribe, even today, when you translate the word that we each had for ourselves, without knowledge of each other, it was always something that translated to basically the same thing. In our language [Narragansett] it's Ninuog, or the people [in Navajo, Diné], the human beings. That's what we called ourselves. So when the [European] pilgrims arrived here, we knew who we were, but we didn't know who they were. So we called them Awaunageesuck, or the strangers, because they were the ones who were alien, they were the ones that we didn't know, but we knew each other. And we were the human beings."-Tall Oak, Narragansett tribe.
Theories abound as to the origin of the Native Americans.* Joseph Smith, founder of the Mormons, was one of several, including Quaker William Penn, who believed that the Indians were Hebrews, descendants of the so-called ten lost tribes of Israel. The explanation accepted by most anthropologists today is that whether by land bridge or by boat, Asian tribes moved into what is now Alaska, Canada, and the United States. Even DNA tests seem to support this idea.
Native American editors Tom Hill (Seneca) and Richard Hill, Sr., (Tuscarora) write in their book Creation's Journey-Native American Identity and Belief: "Most native peoples traditionally believe that they were created from the earth itself, from the waters, or from the stars. Archaeologists, on the other hand, have a theory of a great land bridge across the Bering Strait, over which Asians migrated to the Americas; these Asians, the theory maintains, were the ancestors of the native peoples of the Western Hemisphere." Some Native Americans tend to be skeptical about the white man's Bering Strait theory. They prefer to believe their legends and narratives. They view themselves as the original inhabitants rather than as exploring migrants from Asia.
In his book An Indian Winter, Russell Freedman explains: "According to Mandan [a tribe that was near the upper Missouri River] belief, the First Man was a powerful spirit, a divine being. He had been created in the distant past by the Lord of Life, the creator of all things, to act as a mediator between ordinary humans and the countless gods, or spirits, that inhabited the universe." Mandan belief even included a flood legend. "Once, when a great flood swept over the world, the First Man saved the people by teaching them to build a protective tower, or 'ark,' that would rise high above the floodwaters. In his honor, every Mandan village had a miniature replica of that mythical tower-a cedar post about five feet high, surrounded by a plank fence."
The Mandans also had as a religious symbol "a tall pole wrapped with feathers and fur and topped with a hideous wooden head, painted black." Who could this represent? "This effigy represented Ochkih-Haddä, an evil spirit who had great influence over humans but was not as powerful as the Lord of Life or the First Man." For the Plains Indians, "belief in the spirit world was an unquestioned part of everyday life. . . . No major decision could be reached, no project undertaken, without first seeking the aid and approval of the sacred beings who governed human affairs."
In his book The Mythology of North America, John Bierhorst explains: "Before there were clans, the Osage, it was said, wandered from place to place in a condition known as ganítha (without law or order). A traditional view held that in those early days certain thinkers called Little Old Men . . . formulated the theory that a silent, creative power fills the sky and the earth and keeps the stars, the moon, and the sun moving in perfect order. They called it Wakónda (mysterious power) or Eáwawonaka (causer of our being)." A similar idea is shared by the Zuni, the Sioux, and the Lakota in the West. The Winnebago also have a creation myth that involves "Earthmaker." The account says: "He wished for light and it became light. . . . Then he again thought and wished for the earth, and this earth came into existence."
For the Bible student, it is most interesting to see some parallels between Native American beliefs and teachings expressed in the Bible, especially with regard to the Great Spirit, the "causer of our being," which is reminiscent of the meaning of the divine name, Jehovah, "He Causes to Become." Other parallels include the Flood and the evil spirit known in the Bible as Satan.-Genesis 1:1-5; 6:17; Revelation 12:9.
The Native American writers Tom Hill and Richard Hill explain five gifts that they say Native Americans have received from their ancestors. "The first gift . . . is our deep connection to the land." And in view of their history before and since the arrival of the European, who can deny that? Their land, often considered sacred by Native Americans, was systematically taken by force, by trickery, or by unfulfilled treaties. "The second gift is the power and spirit that animals share with our people." Native American respect for animals has been demonstrated in many ways. They hunted just for food, clothing, and shelter. It was not the native peoples who virtually wiped out the buffalo (bison) but the white man, with his bloodlust and shortsighted greed.
"The third is the spirit forces, who are our living relatives and who communicate with us through the images we make of them." Here is the common theme of so many religions worldwide-the survival of some spirit or soul after death. "The fourth is the sense of who we are, which is expressed and sustained through our tribal traditions." Today this can certainly be detected at tribal ceremonies, where the people gather to discuss tribal affairs, or at social powwows, where tribal dancing and music take place. The Indian dress, the rhythmic beating of the drums, the dances, the family and clan reunions-all bespeak tribal tradition. "The last gift is the creative process-our beliefs made real through the transformation of natural materials into objects of faith and pride." Whether it is basketmaking, weaving, shaping and painting pottery, fashioning jewelry and adornments, or any other creative activity, it is linked to their tradition and culture of the ages.
There are so many tribes that it would require many books to explain all the traditional beliefs and practices. What interests us now is, What effect did the influx of millions of Europeans, many supposedly Christian, have on the Native Americans?
In an interview with Awake!, Cheyenne peace chief Lawrence Hart said that one of the problems affecting Indians "is that we're faced with the forces of acculturation and assimilation. For example, we are losing our language. At one time this was a deliberate government policy. Great efforts were made to 'civilize' us through education. We were sent to boarding schools and prohibited from speaking our native tongues." Sandra Kinlacheeny recalls: "If I spoke Navajo at my boarding school, the teacher washed my mouth out with soap!" Chief Hart continues: "One encouraging factor lately is that there has been an awakening by different tribes. They realize that their languages will become extinct unless an effort is made to preserve them."
Only ten people remain who speak Karuk, a language of one of the California tribes. In January 1996, Red Thunder Cloud (Carlos Westez), the last Indian who spoke the Catawba language, died at the age of 76. He had had no one to speak to in that language for many years. At the Kingdom Halls of Jehovah's Witnesses on the Navajo and Hopi reservations in Arizona, nearly everybody speaks Navajo or Hopi and English. Even non-Indian Witnesses are learning the Navajo language. The Witnesses need to know Navajo in order to do their Bible educational work, as many Navajo are proficient only in their own tongue. The Hopi and Navajo languages are still very much alive, and the young people are being encouraged to use them at school.
There are 29 Indian colleges in the United States, with 16,000 students. The first opened in Arizona in 1968. "This is one of the most wonderful revolutions in Indian Country, the right to educate on our own terms," said Dr. David Gipp, of the American Indian Higher Education Committee. At the Sinte Gleska University, the Lakota language is a required subject. According to Ron McNeil (Hunkpapa Lakota), president of the American Indian College Fund, unemployment figures for Native Americans range from 50 percent to 85 percent, and Indians have the lowest life expectancy and the highest rates of diabetes, tuberculosis, and alcoholism of any group in the United States. Better education is just one of the measures that may help.
To many Native Americans, their ancestral lands are sacred. As White Thunder said to a senator: "Our land here is the dearest thing on earth to us." When making treaties and agreements, Indians often assumed that these were for the white man's use of their land but not for outright possession and ownership of it. The Sioux Indian tribes lost valuable land in the Black Hills of Dakota in the 1870's, when miners flooded in, looking for gold. In 1980 the U.S. Supreme Court ordered the U.S. government to pay about $105 million in compensation to eight Sioux tribes. To date the tribes have refused to accept the payment-they want their sacred land, the Black Hills of South Dakota, to be returned. Many Sioux Indians are not pleased to see the faces of white presidents carved on Mount Rushmore, in the Black Hills. On a nearby mountain, sculptors are creating an even bigger carving. It is of Crazy Horse, the Oglala Sioux war leader. The face will be completed by June 1998.
To survive in the modern world, Native Americans have had to adapt in various ways. Many now have a good education and are college trained, with abilities that they can put to good use in the tribal context. One example is soft-spoken Burton McKerchie, a Chippewa from Michigan. He has filmed documentaries for the Public Broadcasting Service and now works at a high school on the Hopi Reservation in Arizona, coordinating college video classroom sessions across the state. Another example is Ray Halbritter, a Harvard-educated tribal leader of the Oneida nation.
Arlene Young Hatfield, writing in the Navajo Times, commented that the young Navajo do not have the experiences or make the sacrifices that their parents and grandparents did as they were growing up. She wrote: "Because of [modern] conveniences they have not ever gathered or chopped wood, hauled water, or tended sheep like their ancestors. They do not contribute to our family's livelihood as children did long ago." She concludes: "It is impossible to escape the many social problems that will inevitably influence our children. We cannot isolate our families, or the reservation from the rest of the world, nor can we return to the life that our forefathers had." Therein lies the challenge for Native Americans-how to hold on to their unique tribal traditions and values while adapting to the rapidly changing world outside.
To this day, alcoholism ravages Native American society. Dr. Lorraine Lorch, who has served the Hopi and Navajo population as a pediatrician and general practitioner for 12 years, said in an interview with Awake!: "Alcoholism is a severe problem for men and women alike. Strong bodies fall victim to cirrhosis, accidental death, suicide, and homicide. It is sad to see alcoholism take priority over children, spouse, and even God. Laughter is changed to tears, gentleness to violence." She added: "Even some of the ceremonies, once held sacred by the Navajo and the Hopi, are now at times profaned by drunkenness and lewdness. Alcohol robs these beautiful people of their health, their intelligence, their creativity, and their true personality."
Philmer Bluehouse, a peacemaker in the Justice Department of the Navajo nation, at Window Rock, Arizona, euphemistically described the abuse of drugs and alcohol as "self-medication." This abuse serves to drown the sorrows and to help one to escape the harsh reality of a life without work and often without purpose. However, many Native Americans have successfully fought the "demon" drink that was introduced by the white man and have struggled to gain victory over drug addiction. Two examples are Clyde and Henrietta Abrahamson, from the Spokane Indian Reservation in Washington State. Clyde is of stocky build, with dark hair and eyes. He explained to Awake!: "We had grown up on the reservation most of our lives, and then we moved to the city of Spokane to attend college. We did not care for our life-style, which involved alcohol and drugs. This kind of life was all we knew. We grew up hating these two influences because of the problems we had seen them cause in the family.
"Then we came into contact with Jehovah's Witnesses. We had never heard of them before we went to the city. Our progress was slow. Perhaps it was because we did not really trust people whom we did not know, especially white people. We had about three years of hit-and-miss Bible studies. The hardest habit for me to quit was marijuana smoking. I had smoked since I was 14 years old, and I was 25 before I tried to quit. I was high most of my young adult life. In 1986, I read the article in the January 22 issue of Awake! entitled "Everyone Else Smokes Pot-Why Shouldn't I?" It made me think how stupid smoking pot is-especially after I read Proverbs 1:22, which says: 'How long will you inexperienced ones keep loving inexperience, and how long must you ridiculers desire for yourselves outright ridicule, and how long will you stupid ones keep hating knowledge?' "I broke the habit, and in the spring of 1986, Henrietta and I were married. We were baptized in November 1986. In 1993, I became an elder in the congregation. Both of our daughters were baptized as Witnesses in 1994."
In 1984 there was no Indian-run gambling in the United States. According to The Washington Post, this year 200 tribes have 220 gambling operations in 24 states. Outstanding exceptions are the Navajo and the Hopi, who have resisted the temptation so far. But are casinos and bingo halls the pathway to prosperity and more employment for the reservations? Philmer Bluehouse told Awake!: "Gambling is a two-edged sword. The question is, Will it benefit more people than it harms?" One report states that Indian casinos have created 140,000 jobs nationwide but points out that only 15 percent of these are held by Indians.
Cheyenne chief Hart gave Awake! his opinion on how casinos and gambling affect the reservations. He said: "My feelings are ambivalent. The only good thing is that it brings jobs and income to the tribes. On the other hand, I've observed that a lot of the customers are our own people. Some I know have got hooked on bingo, and they leave home early to go there, even before the children come home from school. Then these become latchkey children until their parents return from playing bingo. "The major problem is that the families think that they are going to win and increase their income. Generally they don't; they lose. I've seen them spend money that had been set aside for groceries or for clothing for the children."
Tom Bahti explains that there are two popular approaches when discussing the future of the Southwestern tribes. "The first flatly predicts the imminent disappearance of native cultures into the mainstream of American life. The second is more vague . . . It speaks gently of the acculturative process, suggesting a thoughtful blending of 'the best of the old with the best of the new,' a sort of golden cultural sunset in which the Indian may remain quaint in his crafts, colorful in his religion and wise in his philosophy-but still reasonable enough in his relations with us (the superior [white man's] culture) to see things our way." Bahti then asks a question. "Change is inevitable, but who will change and for what purpose? . . . We [the white men] have a disturbing habit of regarding all other peoples as merely undeveloped Americans. We assume they must be dissatisfied with their way of life and anxious to live and think as we do." He continues: "One thing is certain-the story of the American Indian is not yet finished, but how it will end or if it will end remains to be seen. There is still time, perhaps, to begin to think of our remaining Indian communities as valuable cultural resources rather than simply as perplexing social problems."
Hopi and Navajo Witnesses in Keams Canyon, Arizona, meet at their Kingdom Hall, a former trading post.
From the Bible's viewpoint, Jehovah's Witnesses know what the future can be for Native Americans and for people of all nations, tribes, and languages. Jehovah God has promised to create "new heavens and a new earth."-Isaiah 65:17; 2 Peter 3:13; Revelation 21:1, 3, 4.
This promise does not mean a new planet. As Native Americans know only too well, this earth is a jewel when respected and treated properly. Rather, Bible prophecy indicates a new heavenly rulership to replace mankind's exploitative governments. The earth will be transformed into a paradise with restored forests, plains, rivers, and wildlife. All people will share unselfishly in the stewardship of the land. Exploitation and greed will prevail no more. There will be an abundance of good food and upbuilding activities. And with the resurrection of the dead, all the injustices of the past will be annulled.
Yes, even the Anasazi (Navajo for "ancient ones"), the ancestors of many of the Pueblo Indians, who reside in Arizona and New Mexico, will return to have the opportunity of life everlasting here on a restored earth. Also, those leaders famous in Indian history-Geronimo, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, Tecumseh, Manuelito, Chiefs Joseph and Seattle-and many others may return in that promised resurrection.
(John 5:28, 29; Acts 24:15) What a wonderful prospect God's promises offer for them and for all who serve him now!
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