Links Checked: December 30,1999.

By organizing this single-page time-line, I will be able to add quick links to Universities and archaeological sites offering more information for your curiosities and submit this page, repetitively to URL-checkers to ensure accurate links. In time, I will be adding a discussion area of my own. Ancient Rome is the blue-print of modern society. In my brief adventure in study, I've come to appreciate the developments under Octavian, aka Augustus Caesar, who segregated a history of tyranny into the true building-blocks for today's civilized governments.
 

800 BC

Greece was undergoing a cultural and military revival, with the evolution of city-states, the most powerful of which were Athens and Sparta. Greater Greece was created, with southern Italy as an important component. This period was followed by an era of great prosperity known as the classical (or golden) age.
During the golden age, the Parthenon was commissioned by Pericles, Sophocles wrote Oedipus the King, Socrates taught young Athenians the rigors of logic, and a tradition of democracy (literally, 'control by the people') was introduced.
 

431 BC

The classical age came to an end with the Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 BC) in which the militaristic Spartans defeated the Athenians.

While enmeshed in the Peloponnesian Wars, the Spartans failed to notice the expansion of Philip of Macedon's kingdom in the north. This blunder enabled Philip to easily conquer the war-weary city- states. His ambitions were surpassed by his son, Alexander the Great, who marched into Asia Minor, Egypt (he was proclaimed pharaoh and founded the city of Alexandria), Persia and parts of what are now Afghanistan and India.

The reign of the Macedonian empire, which lasted in the form of three dynasties after Alexander's death at the age of 33, is known as the Hellenistic period. It was a time of the merging of Greek ideas and culture with the other proud cultures of antiquity, creating a new cosmopolitan tradition.

205 BC

Roman incursions invaded Greece.
 

146 BC

Greece and Macedonia had become Roman provinces.
 

88-BC

L. Cornelius Sulla sets off for Greece in charge of the war against Mithradates.
 

87-BC

By the spring of 87 most of Greece was in Sulla's power.

86-BC

After a long siege, Sulla captures Athens in 86. Order is restored in Asia and Greece, and Mithradates became a vassal of the Romans. Lucius Cornelius Sulla (Felix) was a cunning ruler of Rome. Through his influence with the military, he showed members of the Senate that they were ultimately powerless in the face of tyrant's army. But for the people's sake, Sulla left the Senate in power. It was a puppet-government base at best. Sulla called the Senate into session, encouraging his cronies to declared a national emergency and elect Sulla, dictator for a short-term.

83 BC

In Rome, Marcus Antonios(Marc Antony - named after his father) was born in a very important family who were low ranking plebeians. Antony was the first of three sons of Marcus and Julia Antonios.

82-BC

Sulla was appointed dictator under the Lex Valeria (Valerian law), which vested constituent, legislative, military, and judicial power in him, without, however, for the first time in Rome's history, limiting the duration of his dictatorship. When Sulla entered Rome in 82, he made up lists of his enemies. He posted those lists so everyone knew who was marked, and he gave rewards to anyone who would betray them. The technique was horrifying effective. Sulla not only published his proscription lists, he changed them from time to time, so that a man might find himself in danger and then suddenly out of danger. He went on editing his lists for over a year, frightening people to no end. Even those, who were not proscribed, tread lightly lest they find their name on Sulla's lists one day. The next time, the Senate met, Sulla was elected dictator for life. After killing thousands in proscipts and seizing their estates, Sulla was able to confiscate land, wealth, and offices to pay about 120,000 of his soldiers. This was not generosity on his part: his soldiers were landless men who stood on the brink of rebellion.

81-BC

Sulla celebrates his victory over Mithradates. At the close of this ceremony, he chose for himself the name of Felix in belief in his own luck.

73-BC

During the rule of Julius Caesar, Marcus Crassus was one of the wealthiest men in Rome. A member of the equestrian order, he had made a fortune in finance and investing. He longed, however, for military glory. He was a competent commander that knew any ambitious Roman could achieve political success by winning a publicized victory on the battlefield.

A Greek slave in Sicily, Spartacus, led a slave rebellion against the Roman Empire. The local garrisons proved unable to quell the unexpected revolt, which quickly spread throughout Sicily and southern Italy.
 

72-BC

There was real fear in Rome of a general slave rebellion seizing all Italy. Spartacus crossed the straits and land in southern Italy, where he garnered an army numbering in the thousands. Some of Spartacus' commanders were runaway gladiators, who were skilled in combat and who trained the others. But, Spartacus failed to win the resounding victories he needed and the rebellion stagnated. It was here that Crassus entered.

71-BC

Marcus Crassus was in the right place at the right time to deliver a crushing blow to Spartacus. Within a year, he put the revolt to rout and was regaled as the savior of Rome. He had an army of veterans to call upon. Now, he was set for big-time political gains.

69-BC

Cleopatra was born in Alexandria, Egypt. Cleopatra was one of the most fascinating women in ancient studies. According to legend, she was not particularly beautiful but knew how to charm in a richly seductive manner. Though she later became queen, Cleopatra was of Macedonian decent, not Egyptian. For political reasons, she learned how to speak Egyptian and regarded herself as the daughter of Re, the sun god. Cleopatra felt that she embodied the divine aspects of a god, just like all the other rulers of Egypt.

65-BC

Sextus Pompey was born in Rome, the younger son of Pompey the Great by his third wife, Mucia. Sextus was a gifted pirate leader from Orca between 43 and 36 BC

63-BC

Agrippa- Octavian's favorite general, and Octavian / Augustus Caesar were born. In 63 BC, Lentulus, Marc Antony's adopted father, was strangled on the orders of Cicero for his involvement in the Catiline Affair. This would prove to be an event in Antony's life that he would never forget and which Cicero would ultimately pay for with his own life at the hands of Antony.

53-BC

Crassus went to fight the Parthians, his army got defeated in two days. His head delivered to the Parthian King Orodoes which he poured molten gold in the head's mouth. When Antony heard this, he and Pompey,(with Gabinius) brought their army to Parthia and prepared for war with the Parthians. Meanwhile, the Parthian General, Surenas, enjoyed his triumph briefly; Orodes- ruler of Parthian Empire distrusted generals who can beat 4:1 odds and had him murdered. Soon after the battle, the Parthians had been crushed so Parthia was part of the Roman empire now. It didn't last. --Pompey and Antony's army were beginning to kill each other. This made Pompey and Antony be separated from each other. It was Caesar's commandment.

52-BC

At sometime around 58 BC, Marc Anthony traveled to Syria and at the age of 22, he became a cavalry commander who served with distinction in Judaea and Egypt under Aulus Gabinius in 57 - 54 BC. Antony was later assigned to Caesar in Gaul where he became a staff member. His service to Caesar proved useful and in 52 BC he was given the title Tribune of the People. Thus, Antony became a Quaestor with a reputation of being very vocal on behalf of Caesar's interests while serving out his duty in Rome.

It was during this period in Rome where Antony first married Fulvia, the widow of Clodius Pulcher. Fulvia also made the same enemy in Rome before her marriage to Antony - the senator, Cicero. Her husband had been murdered by Milo, a friend of Cicero and in fact Cicero defended him at his trial. Nonetheless, Milo was found guilty and Fulvia became a hated enemy of Cicero. Therefore, Antony and Fulvia at least had one thing in common - their dislike of Cicero.
 

51-BC

When Cleopatra's father, Ptolemy XII died in 51 BC, Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII succeeded jointly to the throne. They married as was the custom in Egyptian royal families. King Orodes son, Pacorus, was an inexperienced youth at this point, and the Parthian army, despite the improvements made, was still poor at organizing long campaigns or taking fortified cities. After a raid failed, Pacorus launched a major invasion in 51 BC, this time capturing and holding all of Syria for several months. He had to give it back, however, when he was falsely accused of treason; Orodes recalled and nearly executed his son. As Orodes quarreled with Pacorus and Caesar quarreled with Pompey, the Syrian war petered out.
 

49-BC

Antony became tribune. He and Quintus Cassius Longinus another tribune, vetoed the bill to deprive Caesar of his army. Caesar then crossed the Rubicon, and the civil war began. In 49 BC, Marc Antony received the title of Augur (priest and soothsayer). It was during this same year when he vetoed the Senate's attempt to strip Caesar of his command. Antony was forced to flee Rome and return to Gaul, but as things calmed down he returned to Rome to watch over Caesar's interests. He was so vigorous in his support of Caesar at the outbreak of the hostilities between Caesar and Pompey, that he was expelled from the Senate chambers. Antony fled Rome once again and joined Caesar before he would face Pompey in battle.
 

48-BC

Cleopatra meets Julius Caesar and achieves his help to overthrow the tyranny of her brother. Encouraged by his minister Pothinus, Ptolemy XIII assumed control of the government and drove Cleopatra from the throne. Shortly before this event there had been civil war in Rome between Julius Caesar and Pompey, for the leadership of Rome. Pompey sensing that he was losing to Caesar, fled to Egypt to seek sanctuary. But Caesar followed him there. Antony commanded the left wing of Caesar's Legions at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC where Pompey was soundly defeated. Following the end of hostilities, Antony became Caesar's right-hand man in Rome and was given the title, co-consul in 44 BC. 46-BC Caesar's Son? Cleopatra gave birth to a son, Caesarion, whom she claimed was Caesar's. It is interesting to note that when Caesar visited in 48-BC, Marc Antony was also along for the journey. Later in the year, Cleopatra visited Rome with her newborn son to visit Caesar.
 

49 - 45 BC

Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (Lepidus participated in Second Triumvirate and died 13 BC) served as Praetor prior to joining Julius Caesar in the Civil War against the corrupt senate and Pompey the Great. As a reward for his support, Lepidus was given the consulship in 46 BC. 46-45 BC in 46 BC, Sextus Pompey subsequently served in Spain as a general in the legions against Caesar. In 45 BC, he fought against Caesar along with his brother in Spain at the Battle of Munda and lost. His brother Gnaeus once again escaped but was finally captured and beheaded. Most of the remaining Pompeians, including Labienus, were either killed or surrendered.

44- BC

The debt crisis that raged during this period cast Julius Caesar as the man of the people against the corrupt Senate of Rome. Marc Antony was convinced that upon total victory, Caesar would simply nullify all his outstanding debt. His conviction in this matter was so strong, that Antony purchased the estate of Pompey assuming that the debt would be wiped out by Caesar and he would have the assets at little or no cost. Caesar did not nullify all debts, but did order state valuers thereby forcing the moneylenders, many of whom were senators, to accept the return of assets against which they had once lent money. He also applied all interest payments to principle thus indeed creating one of the most unique solutions to a debt crisis in history.

Julius Caesar assassinated on Ides of March. After Caesar's assassination,  Antony immediately took possession of Caesar's papers and residence, including whatever assets he had held.

From her arrival in 46-BC, Cleopatra stayed in the city of Rome until Caesar was killed. Then, she quickly returned to Egypt. As first order of business, she ordered the death of her brother so that her own son could eventually become the sole heir to the Egyptian throne.

In Rome, the conspirators had no real plans after Julius Caesar's murder. They thought the Republic would revive of itself when the tyrant was removed. When the Senate picked up the reigns, they found that they had created a vacuum at the very center of political power. Two generals, Brutus, Cassius, and the other conspirators were as guilty as the rest of the Senate, a lack of leadership and vision. They were adventurers in their own right, but without real talent. Rome was in danger of collapse. Sextus was one of the benefactors of Julius Caesar's clemency policy. Following the assassination of Caesar on the Ides of March in 44 BC, Sextus received a Senatorial command of the fleet along the Italian coast being awarded the title "Praefectus Classis et Orae Maritima."

Summer of 44 BC - Marc Antony, age 39, rides to the rescue to rule as consul. For years, he had been playing politics on behalf of his friends and hated no having profit for his loyalty. Through his own foolishness with funds and trust to Julius Caesar, Marc Antony was in dept. He stood among the populous as a celebrated leader. Marc Antony knew the temper of both the Senate and the people. His top enemy, Cicero. But, Marc Antony commaned the military.

On his own authority, Marc Antony called the Senate into an emergency session and advocated for himself to calm the people's growing anxiety. First, he asked that Brutus, Cassius, and the other conspirators (some being members of the Senate) be pardoned. They agreed. Then, Antony asked that his friend, Julius Caesar, be granted an honorable public funeral. The Senate agreed to this as well. Fearing retaliation from the army, most of the Senate were thrilled to have Marc Antony's leadership.

For Antony, the funeral was a great success. The Senate never suspected his true plans. Following Fulvia's advice (Fulvia was his wife), Antony displayed Julius Caesar's body, still wrapped in its blood-stained toga, the knife holes visible. The grieving crowd was outraged. Generals Brutus and Cassius and several suspected Senators fled the scene, eventually sailing to Greece. Then, Antony, having secured Caesar's bequest, read aloud to the immense crowd. For many, Antony represented a noble figure, speaking the word of Julius. Among Caesar's last provisions was the creation of a number of gardens in the city for the poor, and a grant of money to every Roman citizen in gratitude for their loyalty to Julius Caesar.  At that time, no one dared to challenge Marc Antony's claim to consulship.

At first, Antony ruled wisely. Slowly, his vanity and greed began to show. He spent money profligately and embezzled to finance his debts. He treated the Senate with contempt and made allies for Cicero, his enemy. In his writings, Cicero tells us that Fulvia was present when Antony executed a number of centurions, when the legions refused to obey his commands at Brundisium. During the brutal and savage incident, we are told that Fulvia was present and that her face was spattered with blood. Antony apparently invited the centurions to his house and Fulvia's presence there should not be considered as unusual. Nonetheless, Cicero attempts to lay part of the blame on Fulvia clearly showing his bias in the matter. Remember, Cicero despised Antony and Fulvia.

By the end of the summer, Julius' adopted son, Octavian, emerged to claim his right to rule. Octavian was 18 years old. Antony ignored him.
 

43- BC

Octavian appeals for aid, a youth in the nervous court of Rome. Naturally, Cicero, ever the hopeful manipulator, portrayed Octavian as a champion for the Republic and Antony, the great villain. Cicero believed he could steer the young Octavian along chosen paths. So Cicero appealed to Octavian to save the Republic and asked the Senate to declare Antony an outlaw in February 43.

Antony withdrew to Gaul and gathered to himself 22 legions, a formidable force, to fight Rome. He re-entered Italy in the summer of 43. In the early days of the Civil War, Marc Antony initially suffered a defeat at the Battle of Mutina. Antony fled to Lepidus and the two gathered together all available legions and marched on Rome. On their way, they were met by Octavian in northern Italy. Cicero sought to exploit matters between the two greatest threats to the corrupt Senate. Octavian was given the rank of a senator and the Senate backed Octavian against Antony.

While initially, Antony was successful in capturing Cisalpine Gaul, he suffered a humiliating defeat in April 43 BC at Forum Gallorum and especially at Mutina, against the young unproven Octavian. Antony was forced to retreat into Galla Narbonensis where he was joined by Plancus, Asinius Pollio and Lepdius. Meanwhile, over the winter, Octavian and the senators divided because Octavian refused to play Cicero's pawn.  Octavian came to realize that his true enemy was the Senate and that they were succeeding once again in pitting one supporter against another, as was the case between Pompey and Caesar. With Antony coming from the north, Octavian struck first against the Senate by seizing the adoration of Julius Caesar's populas. He occupied Rome with his army and forced the Senate to revoke the amnesty for Brutus and Cassius -- avenging his father's murder. Then, Octavian turned a diplomatic face. Octavian wisely approached Antony in an effort to reach a truce and to combine forces.

OCTOBER 43 BC, Antony joined forces with Octavian and Lepidus in what became known as the Second Triumvirate. On November 27th, 43 BC, Cicero gave a particularly vicious and biting attack against Antony and appeared at the top of a list of men who they condemned to death for constant support of the corrupt system of government that had developed. Men who were supporters of Brutus was produced. Sextus' name was added on the list.

The Second Triumvirate: Octavian, Marc Antony, and Lepidus. Octavian went to Antony and persuaded him to join forces rather than fight. Lepidus, a wealthy and powerful man in his own right, served as a third, and the Second Triumvirate was created.  The three men  turned to the Senate and forced the passage of a law granting all three of them consular power for five years. Lepidus received Spain as his area of command, Antony received Gaul, and Octavian received Africa and Sicily. None of the three were required to reside in their provinces. In effect, they shared supreme power in Rome. Sulla like: [With the Second Triumvirate, Republican government was thrown permanently out of gear. The triumvirs appointed magistrates at will. They packed the Senate with their own supporters. They had full control of the armies and treasury, and followed their own whims for foreign policy. To clear rivals in the Senate and populous, Octavian instituted a round of proscriptions. About 2,300 died or were exiled.

***CICERO's DEATH: There was certainly no love lost between Fulvia and Cicero. As tradition holds, when Cicero was put to death and his head delivered to Antony, Fulvia allegedly spat on it, pulled out the tongue and stuck hairpins in it, amidst much celebration. Even with the death of Cicero, Fulvia still had her enemies in the Roman Government. Among them was none other than Octavian himself, despite the fact that Octavian had at one time been married to Claudia, Fulvia's daughter with Clodius.
 

42- BC

Once Rome was ordered to Octavian's liking, he and Antony went to Greece, where Brutus and Cassius had each been raising an army. In the face of Octavian's proscriptions, many senators with Republican sympathies fled to their camps, so Brutus and Cassius now represented the bulk of the old guard of the Republic. The armies met at Philippi. In successive battles on successive days, Cassius was defeated and then Brutus. These were Octavian's first pitched battles. He was not a military genius, but he had a talent for surrounding himself with brilliant men loyal to him. These commanders won the battle for him. And Antony, of course, played an important role. In Rome, Antony held hands together with Octavian(adopted son of Caesar) and made an enormous army to fight with. The day had came and Antony and Octavian set to travel to Philippi where Brutus was waiting. Antony went south to fight with Cassius' army and completely swiped off the battle ground of Cassius. But in the north, Brutus defeated Octavian(not crushing them, but just Octavian retreating back. Before Brutus was going to face Antony, he committed suicide because he only had a few men left. Rather than fall into the hands of their enemies, Cassius and Brutus committed suicide. Many of the old Republic senators died at Philippi. At this point, Rome was completely dependent on the wills of the triumvirs. Following the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, a new separation of territories was reached. Lepidus lost his European possessions and was granted only Africa in its place. He held these territories until the year 36 BC.
 

41-BC

Mark Antony invited Cleopatra to Tarsus, in Asia Minor and discreetly meets her loving charms. Because Antony eventually wants to become the sole ruler of Rome, he hoped to get some form of aid from Egypt. Cleopatra was intrigued. In order to defeat Lepidus and Octavian, they first needed to raise money, more men, and more allies. in late summer of 41 BC, Antony moved into Syria where he appointed L. Decidius Saxa governor, and a Roman force was sent against Palmyra. The Palmyreans fled to Parthian territory where they influenced the Parthians to attack the Romans yet again.

***Lucius, brother of Antony and guardian of his interests. Lucius then recruited the aid of Fulvia and she promptly appeared with Antony's children before his old soldiers and urged them to remember their loyalty to their commander. Lucius also took up the cause of dispossessed Italians. In the autumn of 41 BC, Lucius gathered his troops at Praeneste planning to launch an attack on Rome itself. Fulvia appears to have joined him there, and, according to the tradition, girded a sword, issued the watchword, harangued the troops and held councils of war with senators and knights. This type of behavior certainly stirred up intense disapproval - The very presumption of a woman in Roman culture who would seek to command the loyalty of the troops was simply not politically correct. There is little doubt that writers such as Florus described Fulvia as having a lot of gaul or girt to brandish her husband's sword. Dio tells us that Octavian took great offense at her military posturing. The poet Martial accused Fulvia of engaging in battle out of pure sexual frustration challenging Octavian with 'aut futue aut pugnemus' ('either fuck me or fight me'). Octavian appears to have chosen the battlefield rather than in the bed when it came to Fulvia; and later Cleopatra for that matter. Octavian moved to confront the military threat and forced the surrender of Lucius' forces at Perusia. In the aftermath, Fulvia fled with her children to join Antony and his mother in Athens.
 

40- BC

Marc Antony's wife, Fulvia mysteriously dies in Sicyon on the Gulf of Corinth, in mid 40 BC, Greece.

Keeping his Egyptian love affair quiet, Marc Antony renewed allegiance with Octavian by marrying his sister, Octavia. The contract of Second Triumvirate was renewed without an equal split. Antony and Octavian took portions of land that otherwise were Lepidus. Unknown to Rome, Cleopatra gave birth to Marc Antony's twins.

After Antony moved southward to Alexandria, the Parthians invaded Syria in the spring of 40 BC, this time allied with Quintus Labienus. Labienus, knowing of the proscriptions following the battle at Philippi, had joined with the Parthians to fight imperial Roman forces. Under the joint command of the Pacorus and Labienus, the Parthian army crossed the Euphrates and attacked Apamea. Though the assault failed, Roman garrisons around Syria rallied to Labienus, with whom they had fought under Brutus and Cassius. The combined army then defeated Saxa in a pitched battle where the Parthian cavalry's skill and larger numbers caused many troops of Saxa's Quaestor (his brother) to desert to Labienus. Saxa, making a forced retreat at night to Antioch, lost most of his men also. Labienus and the Parthians then took Apamea without resistance. After defeating the Romans at Apamea, Pacorus turned south with a portion of the army and conquered the Levant from the Phoenician coast through Palestine. Labienus turned north to follow Saxa, then caught and killed him in Cilicia after taking Antioch. Labienus then proceeded to take all of Asia Minor, and the Parthian army added the legionary standards of Saxa to those of Crassus already housed in Parthian temples. With Labienus, the Parthians had in two years restored their territory to nearly the limits of the old Achaemenid empire and controlled all of Asia Minor except for a few cities.

40-BC In Judaea, Antigonus, a son of Aristobulus II, deposed his uncle John Hyrcanus II with Parthian assistance and proclaimed himself the newest (and last) Maccabean ruler. His victory was not complete, for Herod (also a son of Antipater) escaped to Rome where Antony and Octavian named him king of the Jews.

Octavian was inclined to avoid conflict among the triumvirs in part because he was not ready to test his strength, but also in part because he was preoccupied with rebellions elsewhere. Most notably, Sextus Pompeius, Pompey's son, fermented a major revolt in Spain. It took Octavian four years to bring him down 36-BC (40-36).
 

37-BC

Antony returned to Egypt and married Cleopatra. He then appointed Cleopatra ruler of Egypt, Cyprus, Crete and Cyria. Their plans to annex Rome into the Egyptian Empire was coming into view. In Parthia, before the year was up (37 BC), King Orodes lost his mind and abdicated in favor of a savage son, Phraates IV, who then killed his father and some thirty brothers to secure the throne.
 

36-BC

Sextus Pompey, the pirate son of Pompey, was causing havoc on the high seas. In 36 BC, Octavian called upon Lepidus to bring reinforcements to Italy. Lepidus arrived in Sicily with 14 legions and helped to negotiate the surrender of Sextus Pompey's army. Lepidus was never quite satisfied with his second-rate status to Octavian. With his large force now on Octavian's doorstep, Lepidus made an attempt to wipe out Octavian. The attempt may have been gallant, but the end result was an easy victory for Octavian. Lepidus was stripped of all his titles with the exception of Pontifex Maximus. Lepidus then was forced to retire to his estate at Circeii. Octavian, who may have simply disliked Lepidus, continued to treat his old partner harshly. [Octavian sent his friend General Marcus Agrippa against Sextus and the Mediterranean pirates in 36 BC. Agrippa faced Sextus in the Battle of Naulochus in where the forces of Sextus suffered a major defeat. Sextus once again fled the scene this time escaping to Asia Minor. Despite all the trouble he caused Rome, Sextus was still very popular among the people as is often the case with glorified criminals. It was this popularity in Rome that caused Antony to allow Sextus to finally live in peace. But Sextus tried once again to regain his lost political fortune, which led Antony to send his legate M. Titus who finally put Sextus to death.] [The rest of his reign was so harsh that Mark Antony believed Parthia would be an easy conquest. In the spring of 36 B.C., he led 100,000 men into the Caucasus, Armenia and Atropatene. This army may have looked unstoppable, because it was larger than anything Phraates had on the scene, but Antony committed a major blunder by dividing his force, leaving part of it in the rear to guard the baggage and siege engines. These Phraates found and successfully attacked, destroying Antony's supplies and equipment. Harassed by the Parthian cavalry, unable to forage for supplies, unable to make a truce with his enemy, and facing a tough winter, Antony had no choice but to retreat. It was a death march, with men dropping from hunger, disease, and Parthian arrows. 35,000 men--more than one third of the army--were lost in that retreat. Finally the surviving legions crossed the Euphrates, and the Parthian pursuers suddenly unstrung their bows, praised the Romans for their courage, and went home. Mark Antony headed for Egypt and the soothing attentions of Queen Cleopatra.]
 

35-BC

Marc Antony is defeated at Parthia. As ruler of Egypt, Cleopatra was the proud and ambitious. Antony returned from a disastrous campaign in Parthia (36-35) and was openly her consort. Officially, Antony was still officially married to Octavia. Cleopatra and Marc Antony were not the only eyes focused on Rome. During these years, Octavian steadily gained power. In 35, Lepidus, dissatisfied with his shrinking reign, rebelled. He was defeated and forced into retirement. This left only Marc Antony to share Octavian's rule over Rome.
 

32-BC

Triumvirate lapses. After years of neglect, Antony repudiated Octavia, clearing the way for him to marry Cleopatra. When word reached Rome that Marc Antony sired Egyptian children, heirs to Egypt and Rome, fears deepened. The Roman army backs Octavian in a war against Antony and Cleopatra. As Queen of Egypt, Cleopatra hopes to annex Rome. Antony vowed to make Cleopatra Queen of the Roman Empire.
 

31-BC

Octavian defeats Marc Antony and Cleopatra at Actium, Greece. Octavian sought the help of the Senate, only to be met with obstructionism and outright treachery. The Senate fled to Antony, who was in command of forces in Greece. Antony was overmatched. Octavian had more men and a better army. But, Cleopatra had assured him that her navy would win the sea battle and give Antony the upper hand. The Egyptians bungled and allowed themselves to get trapped in the harbor at Actium. Once that happened, all was lost. Antony and Cleopatra fled, leaving both army and navy, which were crushed. In the sea battle, Antony commanded 500 ships and 70,000 infantry while Octavian had 400 ships and 80,000 infantry. The reason Antony lost was because his soldiers were more experienced at land battle rather than sea. His plan was to destroy the ship carrying Octavian, and dishearten the Roman navy. But when he stormed the ship thought to be carrying Octavius (Octavian), he discovered that Octavian was not on board. This trick created a noose around Antony's fleet and crushed it. The Battle of Actium, started in September 2, 31 BC, Antony and Cleopatra attacked Rome. There in Rome, Octavian was preparing for the attack. When he heard that the western part of Rome was attacked, he made a great army which contained 40,000 men, twice as more than Antony's. Octavian used catapults to disable Antony's ships from attacking. Finally Antony's fleet came on to the battle ground and fought. After a while, a loud roar of laughter began. Octavian had completely crushed Antony's army. ANTONY was 51 when he died/ suicide History of Slavery The start of slavery probably followed the development of farming about 10,000 years ago, historians say. Prisoners of war were put to work tilling the soil. Ancient Greece and Rome embraced slavery, with Greece in the fourth century BC having three slaves to every two adult citizens. Slaves were probably 35 percent of Rome's population by 31 BC After the Roman Empire broke up in the fifth century AD, slavery evolved into the serfdom of medieval Europe.
 

30- BC

Marc Antony and Cleopatra suicide. Octavian immediately set out in pursuit. There followed a dramatic chase, with Octavian's forces sometimes only hours behind. When Antony and Cleopatra realized that the Egyptian army would not be able to stop Octavian, and that no help would arrive from elsewhere, they separately committed suicide. Octavian arrived to find his enemies all but eliminated. He closed the books by hunting down Cleopatra's children and having possible heirs to Rome, killed. With that act, Octavian destroyed the last pharaohs of Egypt, a heritage of 4,000 years. Also slaughtered was Octavian's quiet competitor, Julius Caesar's son, Caesarion. The only ruler of Egypt was Octavian. He took personal possession of the country, not turning it over to the Senate as had been done with past conquests. Octavian literally owned Egypt. Its wealth flowed into his private treasury, and the wealth of the Ptolemies was legendary. In a single year, 31 BC, Octavian made himself the most powerful man in Rome by far. He had 60 legions at his command and entire nations for his pocketbook. No one even remotely approached his position. Most of the senators were dead. The consuls were dead. The Republic was dead. In a desperate move, Cleopatra spread rumors that she had committed suicide. Since Antony did not know her plan, he too killed himself. Cleopatra realized that the death of Antony meant that she could never become ruler of Egypt. So she took her own life by making a poisonous snake bit her in the chest. Lepidus' son, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (III), attempted unsuccessfully to murder Octavian in 30 BC. Lepidus Junior was the first would-be assassin of an emperor and the incident only gave Augustus another reason to torment his old partner. Until Lepidus Senor died in 13 BC and his final title of Pontifex Maximus was then assumed by Octavian.
 

27- BC

Octavian become August Caesar. He keeps the borders of the Roman Empire and stays clear of attacking Parthia. Through his policies, he establishes the beginning of the best Roman rule. He keep clear of Parthia and establishes the beginning of best Roman rule. [Octavian ran everything. The business of the city, of the provinces, the army, finance, foreign affairs -- he tended to all of it, or he delegated it to hand-picked men. It was a burden he could not carry indefinitely, and in 27 he made a significant change. In the year 27, Octavian sent notice to the Senate that he wished to speak to that body on a matter of grave importance. Before the assembled senators, he spoke of all he had done for Rome, detailing his accomplishments. He spoke also of how hard was the work, and the toll it was taking on him. Saying he was tired, and that he had already done far more for Rome than any other individual citizen, he resigned all his offices. The senators cried out in dismay. They pleaded with him to reconsider, for the good of the state. A spokesman stepped forward to offer a compromise: Octavian would remain consul, but a second consul would be elected annually, as of old, so that he could share the burden. He would remain proconsul over Italy, Spain, Gaul and Syria, but the Senate would take up responsibility for the rest of the provinces. Octavian accepted these terms. A grateful Senate voted him the cognomen Augustus, by which name he is generally known in the history books. We usually call him Octavian until the year 27, and Augustus after that.

The likelihood is rather low that Augustus truly walked into the Senate that day intended to retire from public life like Sulla. He had too clear an understanding as to the true state of the Republic. But he was tired and he was overworked, and he needed some stratagem by which to share power. So he (likely) cooked up this resignation scene, with his own men putting forward the compromise that he desired. The effect of the arrangement of 27 was that the Senate now was able to run domestic affairs. Once again, elections were held for aedile, praetor, Quaestor and the other traditional offices of the Republic. The Senate even got to manage some provinces.

Augustus retained control over the military, over finances, and over foreign affairs.
 

14 AD

September 14, 14 AD, Augustus Caesar, or "Caesar" as he has been renowned through history, died. Three days later, he was declared divine, and shrines for his worship were built.

In his will, Augustus left instructions to Tiberius, his successor. Three points were distinguished. First, he recommended that Tiberius restrict the granting of citizenship and the freeing of slaves. From his experiences, Augustus knew that citizenship devalued if extended too freely and slaves were critical to the functioning of the economy. Though this was in the early first century, it makes one wonder about the devices of third-world slave practices now. Second, Augustus advised that leadership should rely only on men of tried ability. He recommended against favoritism and against granting offices to friends and relatives unless they truly were worthy. Finally, Augustus warned that the Roman Empire should remain within the bounds he had set for it. Augustus had been badly shaken by the defeat of Varro at the Teutoburger Wald, and he was certain that further disasters awaited if Rome should become over-extended, particularly near the Parthian borders.

Over the last centuries of the Roman Empire, all of the  emperors violated Augustus' three recommendations. Among all the rulers, Rome achieved its greatest glory under Octavian/Augustus. He restored peace after 100 years of civil war; maintained an honest government and a sound currency system. Woring with General Agrippa and the Senate, he extended the highway system connecting Rome with its far-flung empire. Over his fifty years in office, Augustus developed an efficient postal service; fostered free trade among the provinces; and built many bridges, aqueducts and buildings adorned with beautiful works of art created in the classical style. Within his organized leadership, literature flourished with writers including Virgil, Horace, Ovid, and Livy.

The Roman empire expanded under Augustus ordering his generals to subdue Spain, Gaul (now France), Panonia and Dalmatia (now parts of Hungary and Croatia). He annexed Egypt and most of southwestern Europe up to the Danube River. But, he never made the mistake of invading Parthian Empire, out-right. (Octavian/Augustus sent an slavegirl, Musa, to appease Phraates IV, ruler of the Parthian Empire. To protect the heritage of her only son, Musa killed off all of his siblings then assassinated Phraates IV, as well. She was the first woman ruler to appear on coin, minted with her son who became her next hubby.)

Rome worshipped Augustus as a god. He was not especially daring or charismatic. Unlike most popular leaders, he was not dashing or innovative. In fact, he was hard-headed, conservative, pragmatic, and determined. He knew his political duty and where he had limitations. Perhaps the most wisest of moves was that Augustus surrounded himself with capable, honest men. He was no genius, yet he had the ability to inspire deep loyalty from soldiers, politicians, and artists. To most, Augustus was the epitome of Roman virtues. As Alexander became the archetype for all future generals, so Augustus became the archetype for future monarchs.

A note of interest: The Roman Empire became the foundation of all the great nations later on. When the Caesars fell, the Christian church stepped forward to assume the benefits of the civilized  Roman government, hence the "Roman" Catholic Church. Education, historical archives, separation of church and state were valued and sustained. Though, aspects of a Senate pre-dated the age of Sulla, it was Augustus who truly gave the office merit.

I am continuing a personal education into this era. As a writer, I find the acts of Fuliva, Octavian, and Marc Antony with Cleopatra incredibly interesting. If you have a site or know an URL where I can find
more depths into this period, I would appreciate the  e-mail: annml@hotmail.com