| At what point can we start?
That the Urnfield Culture existed throughout parts of Europe until 1000 BC to be replaced by the `Celtic` Halstatt Culture could mark a starting point. That the Urnfield Culture itself is now universally recognized as the original speakers of old Celtic, pushes the history further back, but to make life easier we`ll call the Halstatt `Bronze Age` Culture the first bona fide Celts. By 600 to 500 BCE Celtic Culture existed from Ireland and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to Turkey and Northern Greece in the East. No single `Empire` existed, but loose tribal groupings. The first `historical` (or at least `Classical`) mention of a Celtic tribe is by Hecataeus around 500 B.C. Later still we learn of Celts of Northern Italy who captured and sacked Rome in 390 BCE. Alexander the Great himself is said to have met Celtic warriors from `Galatia`, and to have formed a pact with them in 335 BCE. Around this time Cathage began to conquer the Celtiberians. Celtic contact with Rome continued, though as the Romans began their ordered march towards Imperial Glory, Celtic disunity began their downward spiral. In 225 BCE, the Romans defeated the Cisalpine Celts at the Battle of Telamon. Roman military discipline, battle formations and strategy proved superior to the Celtic battle-frenzy. This pattern would be repeated many times over the next few hundred years. In 218 BCE Celtic Tribes allied themselves with Hannibal and the Carthaginians in the Second Punic War. I`m sure you know the rest of the story….. As Rome continued its growth into all-conquering Empire, it came into contact with other Celtic tribes. From about 197 BCE the Romans began to invade the Carthaginian conquests, specifically the Iberian peninsula and the Celtiberian tribes. The conquest would take nearly a hundred years. In 125 BCE Rome conquered southern Gaul, and apart from the set back of the defeat of the Roman General Arausio in 105 BCE, they continued to expand into `Celtic` lands. In 58 BCE, a new guiding light led the Roman in the conquest of Gaul, Julius Caesar. One of his first actions was the massacre of the Helvetti tribe, displaced form Switzerland by invading Germanic tribes into Gaul. It is worth mentioning that the line between `Celtic` and `Germanic` was pretty thin at this time, indeed the tribe originally known as the `Germanii` were very probably Celtic. `The Gallic Wars` tell of Caesars battles, and although much can be seen as propaganda, or at the very least `biased`, Caesar has a good eye for detail. Many rebellions are put down by Caesar, but probably the most famous is that of Vercingetorix, who managed to gather warriors from many different tribes. Though he managed to win a number of battles Vercingetorix is finally beaten by Caesar at the siege of the fortified city of Alesia. Vercingetorix, wishing to save the lives of his people, surrenders himself to Rome. Years later he is publicly executed. Caesar continued his conquest of Gaul, before turning his attention to Britain. However he was never to fulfil his ambition regarding Britain, and history tells us he had an appointment with an old friend called Brutus…….. It was Aulus Plautius who began the invasion of Britain, and the Emperor Claudius who would take the credit. As before in Gaul, the hopes of the Celtic peoples of Britain seemed to rest for sometime upon the shoulders of one man, Caratacus. He had joined forces with another chieftain Togodumnus, and but for a lack of strategic ability could have repulsed the Roman invasion. The Britons relied upon natural defences, such as rivers, however the Romans had been well trained to deal with such obstacles, and in a series of surprise attacks overcame the tribes. Togodumnus was killed and the tribes pushed back. Caratacus, however, remained a thorn in the side of the Romans for some time. He moved his theatre of operations to Wales were using guerrilla tactics he managed a number of victories. In order to keep the way open between the free tribes of the west and the north he realized he would have to meet the Romans in a pitched battle in Powys. Despite choosing the ground carefully, the Britons were both outmanoeuvred and outfought. Caratacus escaped, but was handed over to the Romans by Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes, who was hoping to secure Roman help in her battle against her husband. In 59 CE Suetonius Paulinus attacked and conquered Mona (Anglesey) which was producing supplies for the rebel tribes in their Snowdonian strongholds. Mona was also a major Druidic centre. Just as he was about to turn his attention to the rebelling tribes he received a shocking message from the south. The Iceni and the Trinovates had rebelled. In 59 CE King Prausutagus of the Iceni had died, leaving his lands to be split, some to be granted to Rome, some to his daughters. Rome, however had other ideas. In Celtic society Rulership was predominantly a male preserve. Although women could and did assume the role of ruler of the tribe, they would often have to ally themselves or marry someone who would assume the role of King. On the death of Praustagus the Romans simply began to turn all the tribal lands into a province. When Boudicca, the widow of Praustagus complained she was scourged and her daughters were raped. Thus began the revolt of the Iceni, the Trinovantes were happy to join them because from the outset they had been treated as a province of Rome. Suetonius marched southwards, but was already too late to save Camulodumnum (Colchester), Londinium (London), and Verulamium (St.Albans). He choose his battle-ground well, and despite been vastly outnumbered, he beat the tribes back ,trapping them between Roman swords and their own wagons. Thousands were killed, and Boudicca, unwilling to surrender to Roman `justice` favoured suicide. By 80 CE Agricola conquered Wales, the north of England and into southern Scotland as far as the Forth-Clyde. That Agricola considered the invasion of Ireland is known, and it was probably only a lack of manpower that stopped him from taking action. A few years later he planned a way to consolidate Lowland Scotland. He took Strathmore, the gateway to the north, before provoking the northern tribes into one pitched battle at which he hoped to weaken them completely. The battle was Mons Graupius. On the strength of this most noted victory Agricola was recalled to Rome. It was many years before trouble erupted from the Highlands again and when it did, a new defence was decided upon. In 122 CE the Emperor Hadrian had work started on a structure that has forever since borne his name…..Hadrian`s Wall. It was around this time that Christianity began to make its mark throughout the Roman Empire. Although Britain remained under Roman rule for some 300-400 years it would be wrong to assume that the Pax Romana pacified the tribes, as the Brigantian War clearly illustrates. Ireland at this time remained untouched by Roman influence, though a few Irish Chieftains hoped to use Roman help to conquer their neighbours. Of all the Celtic lands, Ireland (along with parts of Northern Britain, including Scotland and Wales) remained mainly pagan and unromanized until around the 5th or 6th Century CE. With the dawning of Christianity in Ireland, light was thrown upon its Pagan past. The `Histories`, myths and legends were often lovingly collected by Christian Monks, copied in tomes with as much reverence as Biblical stories. When Christianity came to Ireland, it did not supress the language and much of the culture as much as it had in other countries. Though Rome had become the centre of religious affairs, the British Isles became the centre of a `hybrid` Christian faith, the Celtic Church. Although Christian, much that was Pagan crossed over, included a few of the old Gods. Brigid became St. Bridgit, keeping many of her old attributes. The later part of the Roman occupation of Britain coincided with a period of great change in Europe. Germanic tribes (Franks, Goths, etc.) pushed westward into the Roman Empire. In an attempt to stop this intrusion many troops, both Roman and local set out from Britain, never to return. Britain thus weakened became an easy target. The Scotti (Irish ancestors of the Scottish), Picts, Irish, Angles, Saxons, Jutes, et al. began raiding the islands coasts. Thus, we enter, the Dark Ages. To be continued....... J. Craig Melia - 1998
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