2. NATURE OF ISLAM

Islam is the simplest of all religions. It is remarkably free of elaborate mythology and ceremonies. It requires only a single assumption, the notion of Allah, and everything else follows from it. There is Reality, and human beings are part of it, dependent on it, and must interact with it. Having accepted this, the individual is required to explore and follow its implications according to his abilities. It has simple articles of faith and practices known as the Pillars of Islam. It is based on a community rather than on individuals or organisations.

All truths are said to be simple. Complexity is regarded as a sure sign of the absence of truth. The reason for this is that simplicity refers to unities while complexity refers to the multiple connections between things which have been divided into parts. The simple can, therefore, contain within it or give rise to the complex. Islam can be understood by the simplest mind as well as the more sophisticated. It also contains that which is not yet within the grasp of the developing mind but can be explored.

“Though the sea became ink for the Words of my Lord, verily the sea would be used up before the Words of my Lord were exhausted, even though We brought the like thereof to help.” 18:110 and 31:27

Islam, like Christianity and Hebrewism, bases itself on the Prophet Abraham, who is considered to be a Muslim (one who had given up the worship of Idols and had surrendered himself to Allah.). Abraham had two sons, Ishmael and Isaac. The Arabs are descendants of Ishmael. Isaac had two sons, Esau and Jacob. Jacob’s name was changed to Israel (Genesis 32:28). He had twelve sons, whose descendants were known as the Tribes of Israel. The descendants of only one his sons, Judah, are known as Jews. Moses, the Prophet was descended from another son, Levi. The King and Prophet David was a descendant of Judah, and Jesus is said to have descended from him. The Prophet Muhammad descended from the second son of Ishmael, Kedar. (Gen 25:13). The tribes of Kedar are also mentioned by the Prophet Isaiah (Isaiah 60:7).

Abraham was born in Ur (a city in a part of the world now known as Iraq) and came to Canaan at the age of 75. (Genesis 11:31, 12:4-5,). He was a Hebrew (Genesis 14:13), a name derived from Eber, a descendant of Shem son of Noah (Genesis 9:18). Abraham’s wife Sarah was at first unable to bear any children, so she asked her husband to take her maid, Hagar, an Egyptian, to wife. She bore him a son, Ishmael, when he was 86 years old. (Genesis 16). God made an everlasting covenant with Abraham and his descendants, promising to make him the father of many nations, who would be fruitful and from whom many kings would arise. The land of Canaan would be theirs forever. He also promised that his wife Sarah would bear a child. (Gen 17). Every male child was to be circumcised when 8 days old as a token of this covenant. Abraham was 99 years old and Ishmael was 13 years old when this circumcision took place. (Gen 17:25). Muslims still circumcise their male children at that age, while Jews do this when the child is 8 days old. The difference in age may well symbolise the difference in time and maturity between the Hebrew civilisation and the Islamic one which occurred in the adolescence of mankind. Sarah gave birth to Isaac when Abraham was 100 years old. (Gen 21:5). As she did not want Hagar’s child to be regarded as equal to hers she asked Abraham to cast her out together with her son. This may symbolise the fact that the Arabs were unknown in the history of civilisation, outcasts as it were.

However, God looked after her in the wilderness of Beer-sheba, and promised to bring forth a great nation from the descendants of Ishmael. (Gen 21).

“As for Ishmael, I (God) have heard thee (Abraham): Behold, I have blessed him, and will make him fruitful, and will multiply him exceedingly; twelve princess shall he beget, and I will make him a great nation.” Genesis 17:20 Also see Gen 21:13, 17-18

According to Islamic tradition Abraham took Hagar and Ishmael to Mecca where they later built the Kaaba. This is now a centre of Pilgrimage for Muslims. Mecca or Baakka is also mentioned by the Prophet David (Psalm 84:6)

God tested Abraham‘s surrender by instructing him to sacrifice his son, but a lamb was substituted instead when it was clear that he would do it (Gen 22). This symbolises the need to make worldly sacrifices to gain a spiritual reward. Indeed, nothing can be gained without some payment. This event is celebrated by Muslims every year. According to Genesis 22:2 this son was Isaac, He calls him his only son. But this cannot be the case because Isaac was the second son. Either it was Ishmael who was to be sacrificed before the birth of Isaac, when he was the only son, or it was the younger son. This contradiction in the Old Testament appears to have been introduced deliberately for sectarian reasons. Muslims believe it was Ishmael, but the Quran does not name him, though it mentions the promise that Isaac would be born after this event. (Quran 37:10-113). On the other hand Abraham had also sacrificed Ishmael by banishing him to the wilderness.

Hagar and Ishmael were banished when Isaac was weaned, at about 2 years old. Ishmael would then be 15 years old. But Genesis 21:14-16 appears to tell us that he was a baby whom Hagar hid under a bush because she did not wish to see him die of thirst. God then spoke to Hagar and asked her to lift up Ishmael in her hand, promised to make him into a great nation and showed her a well of water from which to drink. As it seems very unlikely that all this can refer to a 15 year old boy, it is thought that some tampering with the text has been undertaken in order to exclude Ishmael from the covenant. The text continues to say that God was with the lad; and he grew, and dwelt in the wilderness, and became an archer. And he dwelt in the wilderness of Paran, and his mother took him a wife out of the land of Egypt. (Gen 21:20-21). The descendants of Ishmael are mentioned in Genesis 25:12-18, but no further detailed history of the descendants of Ishmael is to be found in the Old Testament. Jews and Christians believe that this is because Ishmael was not really counted as a son of Abraham if Hagar was a slave. But this is contradicted by the fact that Hagar was a wife (Gen 16:3) and:-

“Then Abraham gave up the ghost, and died in a good old age...and his sons Isaac and Ishmael buried hm in the cave of Machpelah, in the field of Ephron the son of Zorah the Hittite.” Genesis 25:9

The coming of the Prophet Muhammad is prophesied by Moses thus:-

“The Lord said unto me (Moses).... I will raise them up a Prophet from among their brethren, like unto thee, and will put my words in his mouth; and he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him.” Deut. 18:18

Christians suppose that the verse refers to Jesus. But firstly, since the book of Deuteronomy is addressed to the Israelites then their descendants would be referred to as their ‘seed’. The brethren of the Israelites can be taken to mean the Ishmaelites. Jesus was a Jew. Secondly, the Prophet Muhammad resembles Moses more than Jesus does. Like Moses, the Prophet Muhammad was born normally, married and had children, had a political, military as well as a spiritual function, migrated from the land of his origin together with his followers and established a community complete with spiritual and social laws in another place. None of this applies to Jesus.

Later, when the Hebrews were in captivity, Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon had a dream which troubled him greatly. He asked the Prophet Daniel to interpret it (Daniel 2). The king dreamt that there was a bright and terrible statue. Its head was made of gold, the breast and arms of silver, the belly of brass, the legs of iron while the feet were made of a mixture of iron and clay. A stone, cut out without hands, struck the image and destroyed it and scattered it in the wind. The stone grew into a mountain which filled the earth..

The interpretation given by Daniel was as follows:- The golden head represented the Babylonian Empire. This would be succeeded by other civilisations represented by the other metals. Indeed, The Persian, Greek and Roman Empires dominated the area in succession. The Roman, in its later stages was divided into two and represented by the two feet made of a mixture of iron and clay, something strong and something soft, something artificially extracted and something natural. This may, therefore represent the Christianised Roman Empire which divided into an Eastern and a Western Branch. The whole structure was destroyed by a stone, which was not man-made. This could represent natural, concrete or spiritual truths. Daniel says:-

“And in the days of these kings shall the God of Heaven set up a kingdom, which shall never be destroyed; and the kingdom shall not be left to other people, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these kingdoms, and it shall stand forever.” Daniel 2:44

The stone could well represent the Prophet Muhammad. The Civilisation which succeeded the collapse of these others was certainly the Muslim one. However, the interpretation states that the kingdom would not be destroyed but would last forever. It cannot, therefore, refer to a worldly empire, but rather to a spiritual one. Though the foundations of it were laid down it has still to grow and fill the world.

We read:-

“God (i.e. His guidance) came from Teman, and the Holy One from Mount Paran. Selah. His glory covered the heavens, and the earth was full of his praise.” Habakkuk 3:3

Teman is an Oasis north of Medina and Paran is where Hagar and her son Ishmael settled according to Genesis 21:21, and where they founded the city of Mecca. The cave of Hira where the Prophet Muhammad first received his revelation is in the mountains of Paran. Moses told the children of Israel before his death:-

“And he said : the Lord (His word) came from Sanai, and rose up from Seir unto them; He shines forth from mount Paran, and He came with ten thousands of saints; from his right hand went a fiery law for them.” Deuteronomy 23:1-2.

Here Sinai obviously refers to Moses since he had his vision of God there. Seir refers to a chain of mountains near the Dead Sea, an area which includes Jerusalem and Bethlehem and, therefore, refers to Jesus. Paran refers to Muhammad who brought the fiery new law. The 10,000 saints could refer to the number of his followers who captured Mekka in a near bloodless victory.

In Isaiah 21:9-15 we find a forecast about the capture of Babylon by Arabs and the removal of idols. Babylon became Baghdad, a centre of Muslim culture after its capture. Tema mentioned in 21:14 is the 9th son of Ishmael (Genesis 25:13-15) and is also the name of a city in Arabia probably named after him. Isaiah 21:16-17 and Ezekiel 27:21 also mentions Kedar another son of Ishmael.

Numerous other verses in the Old Testament such as Isaiah 20:20-22, 42: 1-9 and 60:1-11 can also be interpreted as referring to the Prophet Muhammad. They forecast the coming of a prophet to the Gentiles in times of Spiritual Darkness. This cannot refer to other Hebrew Prophets or to Jesus who was sent to the Jews. In Isaiah 11:1-2 we are told of the coming forth of “a rod out of the stem of Jesse” on whom the Spirit of the Lord shall rest. Christians think that this refers to Jesus because Jesse was the father of King David, but the Hebrew form of “Jesse” is a contraction for the Hebrew form of “Ishmael”. There seems to be no good reason for tracing Jesus to the father of David and Jesus was born without a father. No attempt is made to trace his lineage through his mother Mary but only through Joseph her husband, either in Matthew 1 or Luke 3, and they contradict each other. (see Matt 1:16 and Luke 3:23

In the New Testament, Jesus, too, predicts the coming of the Prophet Muhammad:-

“And I shall pray the Father, and he shall give you another Comforter, that he may abide with you for ever; even the Spirit of Truth.” John 14:16-17.

“ I have yet many things to say to you, but you cannot bear them now. Howbeit, when he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you unto all truth; for he shall not speak of himself; but whatsoever he shall hear, that shall he speak; and he will show you things to come. He shall glorify me; for he shall receive of mine, and shall show it unto you.” John 16: 12- 14

Christians assume that these verses refer to the receiving of the spirit at Pentecost (Acts 2). In fact the words “another Comforter” and “he, the Spirit of Truth” refer to a person, someone like Jesus. The same word which is translated as “Comforter” in John 14:16 is translated as “advocate” in 1John 2:1 and refers to Jesus. The word spirit is used to refer to messengers in 1John 4:1-3. As there is only one Holy Spirit, it cannot be case that “another Comforter” can be another Holy Spirit. Note also that it is not the Holy Ghost which hears and speaks, but a human person. Jesus himself spoke as he heard (John 7:16-18, 8:28, 12:49 The words �whatsoever he shall hear, that shall he speak‘ can be seen as referring to the revelation of the Quran. Even before his mission began, Muhammad was known as al-Ameen (the Truthful One). Jesus is certainly honoured in Islam and his teachings accepted. The verses also indicate that the message is a final one which will last forever.

It cannot, of course, be proved that any of these quotations were meant to refer specifically and exclusively to the Prophet Muhammad. Controversy about this will, no doubt, continue. But we should not interpret the verses naively. They may be general predictions about what will happen given the nature of man and Prophethood. As such it is no accident that they happen to fit the Prophet Muhammad. The Hindu and Buddhist religions have a doctrine that an avatar or spiritual teacher always arrives when humanity has degenerated.

Consider also the following verses:-

“For I know that after my (Moses‘) death ye (the Israelites) will utterly corrupt yourselves, and turn aside from the way which I have commanded you; and evil will befall you in the latter days; because ye will do evil in the sight of the Lord, to provoke Him to anger through the work of your hands.” Deuteronomy 31:29

“Jesus said unto them: Did ye never read in the scriptures: The stone which the builders rejected, the same is become the head of the corner. This is the Lord‘s doing, and it is marvelous in our eyes? Therefore, say I unto you: The kingdom of God shall be taken away from you, and given to a nation bringing forth the fruit thereof. And whosoever shall fall on this stone shall be broken: but on whomsoever it shall fall, it will grind him to powder.” Matthew 21:42-44

This, of course, is addressed to the Jews, the descendants of Isaac, and therefore forecasts the transfer of Prophethood to the descendants of Ishmael.

"For it is written that Abraham had two sons, the one by a bondmaid, the other by a free woman. But he who was of the bondwoman was born after the flesh; but he of the free woman was by promise. Which things are an allegory. For these are two covenants; the one from Mount Sinai which genders to bondage which is Hagar. For this Hagar is Mount Sinai in Arabia and answers to Jerusalem which now is and is in bondage with her children. But Jerusalem which is above is free, which is mother of us all." Galatians 4:22-26

In these verses the story is taken as symbolic of the difference between the earthly and heavenly, the Lower institutional religion of Moses based on obedience to organisation and Law which promised the Hebrews worldly power and prosperity, and higher spiritual religion of Jesus which promised benefits in Heaven. The Jews were in bondage both to the Romans and to tradition and letter of the rigid ritualistic Laws. Jesus came to free them from this through the spiritual force of Love. Muhammad likewise freed the people of Arabia from superstitions and oppressive traditions, but he combined the spiritual teaching with a social law, recombining the two strands. Unfortunately they separated again soon after his death.

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In the seventh century, throughout the world, the old religions were degenerating, civilisations were breaking down, empires were collapsing. Darkness was descending on the world. Just then there arose in Arabia a single man, the Prophet Muhammad who with a single book, the Quran, introduced a new spiritual spark, which like an impulse from above into the pond below, created waves which spread through the world and gradually transformed it. A new religion was born. It created a new civilisation and a new Empire. No worldly or environmental cause for these developments can be discerned as having existed in those days. It must be presumed that it came from elsewhere. In accordance with the Second Law of thermodynamics all systems always degenerate. Regeneration, therefore, always require an impulse from outside the system.

The teachings of Islam were mainly meant for the education and development of a relatively primitive, poor, simple and uneducated people in Arabia in the 7th century. Their language, however, was and is known to be a most sophisticated one, in comparison with which other tongues were regarded as dumb. Much more complex, abstract and sublime ideas could be expressed in it in a concise manner. And even in this language the Quran was regarded as an inimitable masterpiece. It brought culture and civilisation to them. It had to suit the level of their understanding. But, as the people were meant to develop under its influence, it also had to cater for the more developed minds. It had, therefore, to find a way of combining many levels of teachings.

Moreover, the teaching could not be purely verbal since this was liable to corruption and change down the ages, nor could it consist of second hand accounts about which there would be controversy. It provided something more permanent, a written form. However, the written form lacks the other factors which make communication possible, namely gestures, intonation and contexts. This was overcome by presenting the message in a particular style requiring recitation in certain ways, and instructions as to how it was to be studied. It was also made inspiring, appealing and easy to remember. It was combined with certain practices and rituals which became an integral part of social life. It catered for the whole person by having an intellectual, an emotional and a motor aspect. But whereas one can tell people where nutrition is to be found it is not possible to make them partake of it if they do not wish to, nor to ensure proper digestion and assimilation. Thus distraction by other interests caused a gradual degeneration.

It had given the Arabs unity and direction by channelling their psychological energies. It gave them purpose, ability and power. By means of these they created the highest civilisation of the times and a large Empire. Learning and creativity of all kinds, art and crafts, literature, philosophy, civil and social developments were encouraged and flourished. They gathered, synthesised, built on the ideas and achievements of the past, from the north and south, east and west, and transmitted them to those they came in contact with. Translations into Arabic of Greek, Egyptian, Chinese, Indian and Hebrew works was undertaken and great Libraries produced. The sciences, particularly medicine, mathematics, astronomy and chemistry made advances. Expansion and development took place in many industries, agriculture, horticulture, architecture, navigation and trade. Muslim merchants travelled far and wide and established a net work of trade routes throughout the known world. Many large and prosperous cities were built. Baghdad, in particular, was a centre of splendour. Islam had a universal message which attracted and converted many other peoples and other Muslim empires and civilisations were set up in other lands. Though originally a relatively simple and straight forward religion, development and expansion, new conditions, new lands, peoples and cultures and the passage of time, caused further elaborations, which accumulation over the years. Complex legal, economic, political, social systems and philosophies were created. Schools and Universities were created which attracted scholars from many lands, including a great number of Christian from Europe. One of the greatest Popes in Rome, Sylvester II, studied at the Muslim University at Cordoba in Spain as did Francis Bacon said to be the father of science. Muslim nations gained wealth, power and prestige in the world. The expanding empires and trade brought them into contact with other nations and peoples whom they influenced and stimulated. Reformations took place in several religions, revitalising the dormant spirit in them, and a new awakening, a Renaissance occurred as a result in Europe. It is not difficult to discover that most of the achievements of the Western nations have grown out of the seeds sown in the Islamic nations but also, through them, features from other civilisations. These products of Islam formed the worldly body, encapsulating the spirit of Islam. Though the seeds of these developments can be found within the original teaching, the elaborations and borrowings also adulterated and transformed Islam.

It should be noted that the present Western civilisation is not a Christian civilisation. The real Christian civilisation flourished under Constantine in the Roman Empire. The Power of the Church discouraged the development of science, technology and political reforms. It was more concerned with its own power, institutions, dogmas and ritual than with scientific, ethical or spiritual matters. It is only when the power of the Church was broken, beginning with Luther and followed by other reformers, that such progress could take place. The Protestant Churches after the reformation are much more like Islam than the original Catholic or Orthodox Church were and are. The creative impulses, however, having been transferred to the West, they gradually overtook and surpassed the Muslims. A new age and a new civilisation was born. Having entered into the world, like all other things, Islam itself became subject to ageing and decay.

The reason for this appears to be as follows:-

1. The Spirit, as it were, was used up gradually in the production of these forms, and attention was diverted by the material pressures of the world. The effort and vigilance required to sustain spiritual excellence was gradually exhausted.

2. The forms, themselves, became a source of habituation. As they developed and accumulated they caused social changes on the one hand, but destroyed flexibility and adaptability on the other. Stagnation set in. They became conditioned to the forms they had created in the past, and failed to adapt to changes in the world they had themselves created.

3. The Quran, being meant for the Arabs, is written in Arabic. It is not possible to translate it into other languages because the message exists as much in the rhythms, sounds and structures of the words as in their literal meanings. The Muslims lost contact with their source of inspiration. Even in Arabic speaking lands the language underwent changes.

4. The spirit of Islam became weaker as it spread in space and time owing to the resistance of extraneous influences and the need for adaptation. That which was once a source of stimulation to the consciousness, conscience and will, became familiar, habitual and automatic.

5. The ascendancy which the Muslims gained in the world increased their security, self-satisfaction and arrogance, challenges were reduced, and they became complacent lovers of ease and pleasure. Self-discipline and conscious efforts declined. They lost their vigour and purpose, their initiative, creativity and sense of responsibility. They abandoned the spirit of their religion.

6. The centres of Islamic Civilisation were overrun and almost completely destroyed by the Mongol invasions under Chengis Khan. Though the Ottoman Turks eventually defeated the Mongols when the death of the Khan produced a struggle for succession among them and stopped their advances, the Islamic civilisation was seriously weakened and never recovered. On the other hand it saved Europe from a similar fate.

7. After the death of the Four Righteous Caliphs, just as the Prophet Muhammad had predicted, corrupt rulers arose who used Islam for their own political ends, and Islam lost spiritual guidance. The Prophet, in accordance with the democratic spirit he had introduced, did not name a successor, and this caused schisms to appear within Islam, The resulting conflicts weakened and corrupted Islam.

When asked to name a successor the Prophet had said:-

“If I were to name a successor and you were to disobey him you would be punished, but believe what Hudhaifa tells you and recite what Abdallah recites to you.”

Islam does not, therefore, have (1) a separate priest class or Church such as that found in Christianity or Buddhism. (2) There is no separation between the religious and the secular, and (3) There is no hierarchical central organisation to control interpretation and doctrines. There ought not, therefore, be any sects. The Muslims were to be guided instead by four things:- (1) Allah’s Book (the Quran), (2) The Sunna (traditions about the Prophet Muhammad, though people should beware of false inventions), (3) his Family (the Syeds, descendants of his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali) and (4) his Companions and their spiritual successors.

Not men, nor institutions or ideologies but truth was to rule. Though the Syeds are still honoured and many Saints, spiritual successors to the Companions, have appeared throughout the Islamic world, they lost their political power to the likes of rulers coming out of the Umayyad clan which had been bitter opponent to the Prophet. Islam was corrupted because the Quran and Hadith were interpreted and the Law modified to justify their actions and policies. Kings, Dictators and tyrants dominate Islam to this day. They could not, however, have gained this position if the people had not divided and degenerated. They constitute a punishment.

Fortunately, however, the Quran and the Hadith are still wholly in tact in their original condition, and there are still a great many spiritually minded Syeds and spiritual successors to his companions. The errors can be removed, and Islam revived. A reformation is wholly possible and overdue. Since the decline of Islam was predicted by the Prophet it must be supposed that it was inevitable given the state of human beings. And yet the Prophet fulfilled his mission, as Moses and Jesus did before him, though the Hebrew civilisation was also destroyed and Jesus had predicted the corruption of his message. All this must, therefore, have been in accordance with a grand plan. Every child must first be instructed, but a time must come in the development of every child when they have to be tested, stand on their own feet and learn from their own mistakes. This grand plan is also inherent in the creation of man as vicegerent despite the objection of the angels that he would be a mischief maker. (2:30). Human responsibility cannot be established by forcing him to conformity, and freedom carries the risk of mistakes which bring the suffering by which learning and development occurs.

“They who are idolaters will say: Had Allah willed, we had not ascribed unto Him partners neither had our fathers, nor had we forbidden aught. Thus did those who were before them give the lie to Allah’s messengers till they tasted of the fear of Us. Say: have you any knowledge that you can adduce for us? Lo! You follow naught but an opinion. Lo! you do but guess. Say: Allah’s is the final argument - Had He willed He could indeed have guidded all of you. Say : Come, bring your witnesses who can bear witness that Allah forbade all this. And if they bear witness, do not you bear witness with them. Follow not the whims of those who deny Our revelations, those who believe not in the Hereafter and deem others equal with their Lord.” 6:149-151

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Some of the particular features of Islam are as follows:-

1. The Sovereignty of Allah. Allah is the supreme ruler and authority. Therefore, all aspects of life are to be dealt with in an objective rather than subjective manner. As the main attributes of Allah are Truth, Goodness, Beauty and Power, these rather than opinion or speculation are to be the criteria of action, as well as motivation and thought.

2. Unity (Tawhid). Allah is Absolute Unity. Reality is indivisible, and though we can distinguish between different aspects of it they are all interdependent. The implication is that the Universe is a single system in which all parts are inter-related and inter-dependant. All things are part of greater harmonious whole. It probably also implies that no distinction should be ultimately made between matter, energy, intelligence or consciousness. A human being is also a unity, and ought to be so consciously. Life itself is a consistent whole, but we do not see it that way owing to the limits of our awareness and habit of selective and analytical thinking. We see a tree, but do not see the relationship it has with other trees, much less the forest. We specialise more and more and become unable to see that which is general and universal. The result of this is not only that the world we see is disintegrated, but we, too, are mentally disintegrated. Having lost the unitary view we cannot understand Allah nor our own Self. Islam exists to cure this disease. Man should cultivate inner integration, social integration and harmony with the world he lives in. Religion is not regarded as a part of life, but something which describes the whole of life in a comprehensive manner.

3. Vicegerency of man. He has interests and responsibilities in connection with himself, other people including the society and mankind as a whole, and the rest of the world. He has been given the faculties to think, feel and act, of consciousness, conscience and will, of creativity, initiative and a sense of responsibility from the Spirit of Allah Himself. and should exercise them correctly and responsibly in the service of Allah. Religion is not merely a matter for individuals. It relates to, and concerns the Community (Umma), and mankind as a whole, The individual is to aid the develop of the community, and the Islamic community is to facilitate the development of the individual. The Islamic community is to learn from and influence the development of the rest of mankind, as well as the rest of nature and the Universe.

We do not know whether or not there are life forms in other parts of the Universe. It is, however, likely that as man has spread out throughout this planet, he may also, perhaps, in the coming centuries, spread through the rest of the Universe. He may or may not come across other civilisations, and they may or may not be more advanced than man. But the same Islamic principles will hold. There should be a motion towards integration and Unity. Life does not merely consist of the business of making a living, but it also consists of social relations between people, the relationship of man with his own essential nature and the whole of the rest of reality. Every aspect of man will affect all the others. The economic activity and conditions will affect his social life, both these will affect his culture and psychological life and vice versa. Economic activity affects political and scientific development, and these affect the economy. The Islamic Law or Shariat, therefore, covers Economic, Social as well as Spiritual activity in a consistent and comprehensive manner. It does not admit any conflict between the spiritual and the secular, between body and soul, or between the ideal and the material. Islam is a complete way of life. There is no aspect of life which it does not touch. What is more, it combines them all into a single Unit. This avoids contradictions and ensures coordination.

“And think of the day when We raised in every nation a witness against them of their own folk, and We bring thee, Muhammad, as a witness against these. And We reveal the scriptures unto thee as an exposition of all things, and a guidance and a mercy and good tidings for those who have surrendered unto Allah.” 16:89

4. Islam deals in general principles, and as a guidance, without setting up rigid worldly structures. It has no organised Church and the various institutions, legal and other systems, and rituals practised by Muslims are not, in fact, strictly described in the Quran. Nor is the Quran systematised. These systems must necessarily change with changing circumstances. The application of these principles is the function of man as an agent of Allah. The Prophet showed how this can be done.

It is falsely supposed by some people that Islam teaches that it has a complete ready made answer to every human problem. Islam provides techniques for development, and describes the methods and conditions by which all human problems can be solved. Human beings, as vicegerents, are required to solve their own problems. This is both part of their training and function in the world. Though Muhammad is regarded as the Last of the Prophets so that the guidance is complete, and man was to be left henceforth to his own devices, it has to be pointed out that Quran 33:40 does not say that he was to be last of the Messengers, but only of the Prophets. The Quran does forecast the end of the Islamic dispensation and the coming of a new world religion, a new heaven to accompany a new earth. The Prophet did not appoint a successor to himself, except that his family, the Syeds, and his companions were to be looked to for guidance. This ought, perhaps, have led to the election of Ali and his descendants as the leaders in the Islamic world which may have altered the history of Islam and saved it from disintegration and degeneration. However, it remains a fact of history that the majority exercised their right and elected Abu Bakr and Ali accepted this. The schism in Islam between Shiahs and Sunnis, based on this controversy must, therefore, be attributed to human perversity and the failure to understand and follow the teachings of the Prophet about the evil of schisms. The suffering which this conflict brought must be regarded as the just punishment for maintaining this perversity.

The Prophet himself is reported to have said:-

“ If I tell you something about your religion accept it. But if I tell you about anything else, then I am but a man.”

These features of Islam stimulated and encouraged freedom of thought and creativity. Tradition, authority and dogmatism have or ought to have much less effect than they did in the Christian Church.

Consider also the following verses:-

“When it is said to them: Follow that which Allah hath revealed, they say: we follow that wherein we found our fathers. What! Even though their fathers were wholly unintelligent and had no guidance?” 2:170

“O ye who believe! Ask not of things which, if they were made known unto you, would trouble you; but if ye ask of them when the Quran is being revealed, they will be made known unto you.” 5:101

This verse is important to illustrate a general attitude of Islam.

(a) There is a correct time when knowledge or learning is possible or when it can be usefully applied.

(b) Islam is not in favour of “spoon-feeding”. The individual and the nation should learn by their own efforts.

(c) Not all knowledge is useful at a given time. It is only that which is useful for human development which should be sought.

(d) However, Islam recognise that curiosity or the desire for information or knowledge is also a need which may require satisfaction. The verse does not deny an answer to those who ask.

(e) It is often necessary to ask the correct questions in order to receive an answer. Not all questions have answers which could be understood by man.

(f) Inspiration, Prayer and meditation are also valid methods of search. Answers do not only depend on collecting data, experience, reasoning, calculating, observing, studying, experimenting and asking experts, but also on insight and inspiration.

(g) At the time when Islam was being revealed there were certain problems, the solution of which required expert guidance. If despite this guidance people still had problems, they could ask further questions. But they were asked not to do so in case they were troubled by the answers. The trouble could have arisen because they were not yet ready for the answers since each stage of development depends on a previous stage.

(h) Conditions may change and create different problems requiring different solutions. But having been given instructions people may feel obliged to adhere to these instructions or become habituated to certain ways of doing things, even though they become obsolete. Islam recognises the proneness of people to form fixations.

The specific legislation should be regarded as illustrations of how to apply the guidelines. It is not the intention of Islam to create a rigid system as this would militate against the very purpose of Islam which is to get man to take up responsibility for himself. Indeed, the Quran itself is not systematised. The creation of one system generally excludes another just as when we construct a chair out of a quantity of wood we exclude the construction of a table. However, if we have the materials then all possibilities are open to us and no system excludes others.

5. From the Islamic point of view, intelligent life is not possible without certain categories and criteria by means of which experiences and motives are interpreted, judged and evaluated. These are built into us (a priori) and the function of the Scriptures is only to make us aware of them, to bring them into consciousness. If freedom of choice between alternative modes of behaviour exists then arbitrariness and harmful behaviour can only be avoided by having correct guiding principles. A third factor has to exist between an inner psychological condition and an outer physical one. Ordinarily, behaviour is governed by certain criteria which we have acquired accidentally as a result of cultural conditioning or because of inherent rhythms and structures, and these exist in the sub-conscious or unconscious mind. Control is achieved only when they are brought into consciousness where they can be examined. This makes the difference between a religious and a non-religious man. One acts impulsively and the other deliberately and consciously. Alternately, we may assert that there are no non-religious people, only conscious or unconscious ones. Conscious control makes the difference between true and false religion as well as between intelligent and non-intelligent behaviour.

A Muslim is one who evaluates his experiences, all actions, motives, thoughts, institutions, all aspects of social life, events and interactions, his own significance and value, and the world, in terms of his religion. Islam provides the framework of reference with respect to which everything is interpreted. Religion is not a kind of side issue. The language describing the framework of reference is not like the language of science, commerce, literature or law, and should not be mistaken for them. It refers to something underlying values as well as facts. Action depends on values, which provide the motives for them. Even the search, selection and interpretation of facts depend on it. Values are prior to facts.

Free thinking, that is, pure undisciplined speculation, in which the West prides itself, is not compatible with Islam, though thinking is certainly encouraged. As a vicegerent, he has the duty to use the faculties bestowed on him. But it is denied that fallen man is either capable of proper thinking or free. It is asserted that only objective thinking, that which conforms to reality, is valid. To think implies that the individual has some control over it. In fact, it is usually automatic and driven by prejudices, bias, fantasies, mental blindness, fixations, habits, self-interest, rationalisation, repression, and inadequate or distorted information. But even the free thinker admits that thinking must conform to the principles of logic if it is to be valid, and that these principles cannot be arbitrarily invented but must be discovered. They cannot be man-made.

“Most of them follow nothing but conjecture. Assuredly, conjecture can by no means take the place of truth.” 10:37

Free thought and freedom in general are only possible when the individual has freed his faculties and uses them correctly. He must have correct knowledge. He must develop consciousness of his mental processes and his surroundings, he must have a conscience to give him the correct motivations, and he must have a will, self-discipline to control his thinking, feeling and actions. In the meantime the only kind of valid thinking is by analogy with what is known.

This is not to say that Islam forbids the formation of opinions. It requires that thinking should be rigorous and objective. In so far as opinions are formed the individual must recognise them as such. He should not mistake them for truths or assert them as if they were true. In general he should qualify them with the phrase “But Allah knows best what is true” or “If Allah Wills it so”.

The problem, however, remains, that the same mental defects (a) bring people to a religion, (b) distort its message, (c) invalidate belief in it.

Behaviour is driven not by reasons, but usually by causes. Every religion and ideology is in exactly the same situation. The causes for the acceptance of one are similar to those which lead to the accepting or rejection of another. The conflict between them is, therefore, absurd.

Islam, therefore,

(a) Denounces religious conflicts (6:109, 42:15, 5:48).

(b) Hopes that the people who come to Islam do so because the objective faculty is not completely atrophied and they can see a glimpse of the truth.(2:146)

(c) Denies that true faith exists in the beginning. Instead it requires submission to a discipline, which will provide the experiences on which faith can be based. (49:14)

(d) Proves the truth of the religion by the results. (41:53) In so far as the results are not beneficial, it has not been practised correctly. The degenerate state of a nation is, therefore, a direct consequential punishment for its malpractices.

6. Ordinary human behaviour consists of reflexes, instincts and habits, and voluntary action depends on impulses which have been conditioned by past experiences. The tendency towards such actions produces their motives, and the rationalisation of motives accounts for most beliefs and even perception. Debates, arguments and proclamations of beliefs in values or ideologies, therefore, turn out to be usually illusions. It is seldom true that people have consulted reason or conscience. They pursue goals and express opinions which have merely been environmentally inculcated into them. The causal order for their behaviour is, therefore:- environment-reaction-feeling-thought-awareness. Since our actions are usually reactions to stimuli coming from the physical environment, and our awareness leads us to construct our world view, we can see the following sequence of events:-

world >reaction> motivation> thought > awareness> illusion >idols

This can be called the mechanical or Subjective orientation. The individual is passive with respect to the world and is controlled by it. Islam, however, requires us to re-orient ourselves. This is called Repentance or Turning.

”Triumphant are those who turn repentant to Allah, those who serve Him, those who praise Him, those who fast, those who bow down, those who fall prostrate in worship, those who enjoin the right and who forbid the wrong and those who keep the limits ordained by Allah - and give glad tidings to believers.” 9::112

The result can be represented by the following series of events:-

Allah> real world > awareness> thought > motivation> action> world.

That is, we see the world and modify it, according to impulses coming from above or within. We are active rather than passive with respect to it. This may be called the Conscious or Objective orientation. It is the reverse of the Subjective order.

As the Vicegerent of Allah, man stands midway between Allah and the Physical Universe. He may, therefore, face either way. In the first case it is our environments which drive us and causes us to worship our products, percepts as idols. In the second case we are driven by higher spiritual impulses and we act and transform the world consciously.

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There are in general three ways of looking at the world - the Natural, the Secular and the Religious. The Natural arises from inherent factors modified by experiences. Broadly speaking the Secular view arises from thinking and can be described as having three aspects:-

(1) The Ideological, based on Philosophy, science, art etc. (2) The Political and (3). The Economic

The West appears to have solved the problem of political stability. It has not solved the problem of economic stability though the problem of economic needs has been solved to a large extent. It appears also to be satisfied with its science and arts. In general Economic factors dominate and control both the political and ideological conditions.

The religious view is much more comprehensive. It, too, can be described by three factors:-

1. The Psychological or spiritual aspect. The relationship of man with himself and with Reality as a whole. This includes all ideas, motivations and activities.

2. The Social aspect.. The relationship of human beings with each other. This includes Politics and Ethics including Law.

3. The Environmental aspect. The relationship of man with the world he lives in. This includes the whole ecology, and economics as part of it.

The Secular view differs from the Religious in being more restricted in its objectives, while at the same time being more abstract in that it deals with communities in general rather than the individuals in it. Since all these factors are inter-dependent it is unlikely that the restricted Secular View can ever solve all human problems. Factors coming from outside its sphere will create unforeseen and unpredictable results. Psychological and environmental effects are always interfering with economic, political or ideological predictions and control. It has created problems for individuals. On the other hand because attention is restricted to a narrower field it has become more possible to solve some of the human problems. Having solved these, attention could then be released to attend to the other problems.

Religion, on the other hand, owing to its broader and deeper approach has not been able to solve the general problems of mankind, though it has solved the life problems for some individuals. The human mind, it appears, is too limited, and will, therefore, attend to one aspect by sacrificing another. It seems obvious that a combination of the two views is essential. But this is already inherent in the Islamic view. The secular view is absorbed as a part of a greater whole. It is precisely because the efforts of the Muslims was distributed over a much wider area than those of the Western World that it remained relatively backwards in the fields in which Western effort was concentrated. But owing to the concentration of attention on just this restricted secular field, they produced an unbalanced civilisation and the achievements of Muslims in the other fields were not recognised by the West. It is likely, therefore, that Islam will in the future come into its own, when attention and effort is expanded once again.

The Psychological aspect:-

Human minds can be analysed into three aspects - thought, motivation (feeling and emotions) and action, and the associated impulses of faith, love and hope. This corresponds to the three aspects of God, namely Truth, Love and Justice, and also to the three aspects of the Spirit - Consciousness, Conscience and Will. There are religious techniques connected with each of these. Accordingly, four types of Religions could be described:- those placing emphasis on the development of only one of these three aspects, and a fourth which tries to coordinate and keeps a balance between the three. Islam endeavours to do the last and is, therefore, called the Balanced Way and Completed Religion.

When the emphasis is only on one of these aspects then problems are likely to arise due to imbalance. Since these faculties are also inter-dependent, emphasis on one alone sets a limit to the independent development of each. One person may develop much knowledge and awareness but have no motivation or power to do much with it. Another may have strong motivation, but lacks the knowledge and the ability to carry these out. The third may have a strong will and great abilities but little motives or knowledge. They cannot achieve much. Wisdom, Compassion and Capability must go together.

Though all religions endeavour to deal with all aspects of life their emphasis tend to differ. Hebrewism places its emphasis on ritual and the Law and Justice, that is, on action. Christianity places its emphasis on Love and compassion, that is, on motives. According to the teachings of Jesus he who acts from love will automatically fulfil the requirements of the Law. He condemned those Jews as Hypocrites who followed the rituals and letter of the Law while neglecting its spirit. It is, however, possible to deceive oneself or to do great harm without knowledge. Though Jesus also taught that it is the Truth which makes people free (John 8:32), this is not usually emphasised in Christianity.

Islam, apart from teaching Justice and Compassion, also emphasises Truth, knowledge, awareness. learning, observation, self-examination, faith and thought. Islam is the Religion of Truth. (Quran 2:29,33 and 61:9) Unless one is aware of ones own motives and states, one cannot judge what is true or good, and the state and needs of others cannot be known. Where love alone is emphasised another kind of hypocrisy arises. It becomes a habit to attribute good motives to oneself, even for the most selfish actions. This is particularly observable in Western politics and business. Unless one knows the proper values, techniques and facts one cannot progress in the right direction. It is their thoughts which form people (41:23). The human race is still far from objective behaviour. The Truth, despite science, is not held in great esteem.

This emphasis has several consequences:-

1. Islam is centred on the teachings of a book, the Quran, unlike Christianity, for instance, which is centred on a man, Jesus. Unfortunately many Muslims have mistaken the book for the teaching as the Christians mistook the man for his teachings.

2. The Quran is full of arguments and appeals to the intelligence.

3. The Quran constantly points to Nature for evidence. The Quran is itself a reminder of creation (81:27-29 and 68:52).

4. Islam does not depend on miracles and wonders. These do not constitute evidence or valid arguments, nor do they ensure understanding. Nature itself is a sufficient miracle. The Quran itself points this out (2:118-119, 3:183, 6:110-112, 10:21, 13:7, 17:59).

5. The Prophet did not establish a Priesthood or an organised Church. He did not create a succession. It is the duty of each person to seek knowledge and act accordingly. Religious obligations cannot be performed for people. Religious authority was to depend on merit.

It has been observed by many people that the Eastern Religions differ from the Western in not being institutionalised. Though there are priests as distinct from the rest of the population in Eastern religions, who determine what the religious teachings are, they are not organised. They have a variety of scriptures but these are not standardised. Thus variety appears without sectarianism. In the West, Christianity had assumed a political role. The priesthood is organised into a church which determines which scriptures are canonical, how they should be interpreted and what the dogmas should be. Islam differs from both. It has no priesthood or organised Church, but it does have a standard scripture which has remained unaltered. As this contains the words of Allah in the first person, it has the same status as the universe in that though the foundations are constant, the interpretations could be different according to circumstances. Thus both unity and diversity are assured. This is more in conformity with natural processes where variety arises though the underlying laws are constant.

6. The term ‘Vicegerent’, though it is applied to mankind in general, is also applied to Muslims in particular. This term is used instead of ‘Priesthood’, since priesthood refers to a social function while vicegerent refers to a cosmic function. This can be seen by comparing the following verses:-

“And thou wilt find the nearest of them in affection to those who believe (Muslims) those who say: Lo! We are Christians. That is because there are among them priests and monks, and because they are not proud.” 5: 82

One of the implications of this verse is that the Muslims have or ought to have the same relationship with mankind as the priests have with the rest of the Christian community. And, indeed, in the past they did.

“Ye are the best community that hath been raised up for mankind. Ye enjoin right conduct and forbid indecency, and ye believe in Allah. And if the people of the Scripture had believed, it had been better for them. Some of them are believers , but most of them are evil livers.” 3:110

7. Islam is, therefore, a democratic religion. Even the Prophet had no powers of compulsion, but merely the duty to convey the message. (Quran 3:159, 6:66, 10:100)

8. Islam is not a missionary Religion in the Christian sense, though it is the duty of each Muslim to set an example and tell and teach others who ask. It recognises and respects other faiths. Islam does not normally send out missionaries to deliberately convert others, particularly by the use of dubious and irrelevant means. It is not possible to make people understand something if they are not receptive to it, nor is there any point in conversions for wrong reasons such as those for health, financial, political and other advantages. Brain washing does not constitute conversion.

“Invite to the way of thy Lord with wisdom and fair exhortation, and reason with them in the best ways.” 16:125

“Who is better in speech than one who calls men to Allah, works righteousness, and says: I am one of the Muslims.” 41:33

“If thy Lord willed, all who are in the earth would have believed together. Would you compel men until they are believers? It is not for any soul to believe save by the permission of Allah.” 8: 100-101

“Say: O disbelievers! I worship not that which you worship; nor worship you that which I worship. And I shall not worship that which you worship, nor will you worship that which I worship. Unto you your religion, and unto me my religion.” 109

9. Faith has a special meaning. Although faith refers to something not physically seen or sensed it refers to something which is understood. From the Islamic point of view there can be no knowledge which is not believed and not applied. Believing the theory of parachuting is not faith, but faith is jumping out of the aeroplane with a parachute. Nor can there be true belief in something which is false. People profess to believe in all kinds of things, usually false and even contradictory things, but these are obsessions, addictions or fantasies, not beliefs. Others profess belief but do not act accordingly. These are cases of hypocrisy and lying (49:14). To say one believes implies that one has actually gathered, considered, understood and assimilated the evidence. Belief in gobbledygook is a lie. To believe is acceptance, and as such implicit in the meaning of Surrender.

10. Islam is against monasticism, withdrawal from the world and celibacy (57:27). Psychological development is to be achieved in contact with the world, through experience and struggle against temptations and adversity. It could be argued that:-

(a) The world itself provides all the facilities necessary. Withdrawal is usually mere cowardice or inadequacy. It is more likely to produce fantasies, illusions and perversions. Reality can only be known by contact with it.

(b) The will is strengthened not by escape from temptations but by overcoming them.

(c) Monasticism creates an exclusive religious community. Islam differs from other religions by involving the whole community, not just the priests who perform the religious duties for the people. Christianity leaves religious and spiritual matters to the Church and its priests, And this attitude is probably responsible for later leaving politics, administration, commerce, science, art and so on to their own ‘priests’. The Muslim, in contrast has the responsibility to seek and apply appropriate knowledge and undertake his own development. It is as if the shell in which religion was confined has been burst open. The secret is out and has been made available for general use. One consequence of this is that religion has also become relevant to every aspect of human life. Commerce, Politics, Morality, Science, Art, Education, Health, Etiquette, everything is not merely part of religion, but the concern of every individual, not to be left merely to some specialised group, though the expertise of those who have superior knowledge, ability and experience in some field is recognised. This is not the case where the religious withdraw from life. The danger, however, that worldly life will interfere with, and corrupt, the spiritual life has been increased. Greater responsibility and self-control is required.

(d) A dichotomy has occurred in the world. The intelligentsia in the West has devoted itself to creating paradise on earth, but that of the East has devoted itself to Paradise in heaven. This has caused a great difference between the East and the West. The people of the West have become economically prosperous and technologically powerful, but at the expense of their social and psychological welfare and wastage of resources. The peoples of the East have remained economically poor and uneducated. Few can devote themselves to the spiritual life. Islam creates a balance between the two.

11. Islam requires detachment from the world. Surrender to Allah includes this detachment. There can be no knowledge if no separation is made between knower and known, observer and object. In particular self-knowledge and self-control require detachment from oneself. Justice and impartiality are impossible without it. Monasticism has often been justified on the grounds of detachment. The Universities, the seats of learning, of science and philosophy, in the West, have also adopted this attitude, But, from the Islamic point of view, there is a big difference between the two since the one is physical and other psychological. The Islamic attitude is that man should live in the world but not be of the world. He should not be mentally attached or identified with it.

12. Islam is against everything which interferes with control and the proper functioning of the faculties. Thus alcohol is forbidden. The same principle could be applied to the use of tobacco and drugs. Gambling which depends on chance and diminishes human control is banned. Usury is also forbidden because it contradicts compassion and charity.

The Social aspect:-

Though Islam is concerned mainly with psychological development, it was realised that this would not be possible for many people unless there was a social order which facilitates this. When Muhammad and his disciples fled after persecution in Mecca to Medina, he set out to produce such a community. The mission of Muhammad in Mecca corresponds to that of Jesus, the disappearance of Muhammad from Mecca being equivalent to the disappearance of Jesus. His mission in Medina is regarded as the second half, the completion of both his own mission and that of Jesus, like the expected return of Jesus.

The social order provides the appropriate stimuli, opportunities, encouragement and facilities for development. This requires:-

1. That there should be a tradition current in the Society which points to higher orders of reality, life styles and values. At least some people will then seek these.

2. That the psychological energies are not completely absorbed in trivial pursuits, worldly ambitions, competition, the pursuit of pleasure or in the acquisition of the means to life.

3. That there is a certain amount of social order so that energy is not wasted in conflicts and self-defence, and it is possible to live reasonably comfortably with some leisure for higher aims.

4. That the culture contains certain elements which create morality and beneficial attitudes of mind e.g. tolerance, the recognition of the rights and dignity of other people, the respect for higher abilities, knowledge and virtues rather than greater wealth, prestige and power.

5. That conditions are provided where there is mutual stimulation, reinforcement, encouragement and cooperation in order to strengthen the impulse to development.

6. That religious practices are so integrated into the commercial and social life that they are not easily forgotten and neglected. Even hygienic practices which maintained the health of the people were integrated into religious practices.

There must first be a law which creates a certain social order. This makes possible certain higher states of feeling and emotion. Where there is disorder, and murder, robbery and violence are common occurrences, there each person has to protect himself against all others, and to try to dominate and use them for his own survival. Where competition exceeds cooperation no altruism is possible. Nor can craft and industry develop where people live as predators on others and it is not worthwhile producing anything. Apart from this, certain customs and etiquette must exist to facilitate understanding and smooth relationships. Certain kinds of institutions, festivals and ceremonies must exist to bring people together and point to the wonder and the miraculousness of existence. Certain kinds of rituals and rites exist in order to produce and reinforce appropriate feelings, emotions and attitudes which underpin the law. The law cannot be upheld if there is no sense of the sacred.

Hebrewism placed great emphasis on the law. However, the followers of Jesus misunderstood his message and abandoned the Hebrew Law. The Church had to re-impose a Law, but it took it from the Romans, a secular man-made Law, designed to dominate and control. It also became clear that people began to deceive themselves and started to attribute the best of motives to themselves for the most diabolical acts of cruelty, selfishness and perversion. Inner conflicts, guilt feelings, suppression and rationalisations began to occur because of the conflict between the ideals taught and the primitive inner impulses. Owing to this, the inner view into themselves was too painful, and people began to look outwards instead of inwards. The process of psychological externalisation began. The consequence of this was that inner development ceased and was substituted for external environmental development. This is probably the secret of Western technological ascendancy, but it is achieved at the expense of inner growth.

Islam, therefore, came to restore the religious law.

A reading of the Quran shows that Islam places its emphasis on the community rather than on individuals. It mentions the fortunes, the rise and fall of communities through past history and refers to the establishment and running of the Islamic community. It is recognised that the individual by himself is weak and rather limited in powers, and that mutual support, encouragement and cooperation enables individuals to achieve much more than they can in isolation. Man is a social creature and formed and moulded by the social culture. Moreover, a human being is a unity in which his social life will affects all other parts.

It follows logically, therefore, that Islam should concern itself with economic, political and cultural matters as well as spiritual ones. It concerns itself with etiquette, customs and conventions, physical, social and mental hygiene, as well as with matters of social procedures and interaction of all kinds. Worship becomes a matter of social discipline e.g. in the formation of rows in mosques which follow a leader in various symbolic postures, all in unison and all of which face in the same common direction towards the Kaaba. The gatherings in Mecca during the Pilgrimage are another method of creating solidarity. And so is the giving of the Zakat, and the obligation to defend the community in war.

The kind of Socio-political system which Islam tries to set up may be called “Communalism”, not to be confused with “Communism”. It is based on “mutual consultation” (Quran 42:38) rather than government by a group of power holders, even when elected. It is assumed that all citizens seek the truth and that those who are consulted and appointed to deal with the affairs of the community will posses wisdom, virtue and ability. Though no distinction of race, nationality or rank exits, the idea that all men are equal in the factual sense is rejected. It is obviously false. (4:32). Some have greater abilities or virtues than others. This idea is replaced by “Brotherhood”. The implication is that each person, not the State or the Collective is responsible for others, that there should be a relationship of love, sympathy and personal responsibility rather than some abstract notion of equality. The distribution of wealth is not something imposed by government but is administered by the local community. Theory, Formalism and the mechanicalness of bureaucracy is replaced with humanity. It is clear that much more can be achieved by love which creates a positive motivation than can be achieved by rules and regulations and by fear of punishment. Rules and regulations on the other hand suppress as much as they enable, and cannot be versatile enough to cover all situations. The problem with this type of organisation is that when things are left to the voluntary actions of people and there is no external compulsion or machinery which works by its own momentum then, though it gives greater freedom for development, it also provides greater freedom for degeneration. And indeed, this is what has happened. There are always risks involved in anything.

The Ecological aspect:-

Ecological problems are coming much more to the front in the minds of people these days because of the great effects which industrialization, driven by the progress of science and technology, has had on the environment. It is beginning to threaten the very existence of life on the planet. Human power was not so great in the past, and the religions did not feel it necessary to deal with the subject to any large extent.

There is, however, a noteworthy difference between the attitude of Hebrewism and Christianity on the one hand and the Nature religions in various parts of the world, such as that of the Red Indians of America. The latter consider human life as being part of the totality of nature. Their life is governed by the principle of harmony with nature. There is no ambition to exploit or dominate it. No property rights are recognised. No industrialization could have arisen among them.

The Christian attitude is taken from the Old Testament:-

“And God said unto them (mankind): Be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth.” Genesis 1: 28

Indeed, the attitude behind science, technology and industry is just this, to dominate and to exploit, and it has led to our present destruction of the environment. This would, of course, not have been the case if the other teachings of the scriptures had also been applied. The religious attitude is that if man functions correctly according to his nature then he will also behave responsibly towards the environment. If he does not, then the environment itself will revolt. The punishment for such disobedience is described in the scriptures as being, among other things, storms, floods, droughts, earthquakes, famines, pestilence and so on. Clearly, events in the environment are regarded as being to some extent dependent on human behaviour.

The attitude of the Quran is different from either of the above.

“ Allah it is Who has made the sea of service unto you that the ships may run thereon by His Command, and that you may seek of His bounty, and that haply you may be thankful. And has made of service unto you whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in the earth; it is all from Him. Lo, herein are signs for people who reflect.” 46:13 See also 14:32- 34 and 16:10-14

“O you who believe: Forbid not the good things which Allah has made lawful for you, and transgress not. Lo, Allah loves not transgressors.” 5:87

“Work not confusion in the earth after the fair ordering of it, and call on Him in fear and hope. Lo, the mercy of Allah is near the good.” 7:56

“There is not an animal on earth, nor a flying creature flying on two wings, but they are peoples like you. We have neglected nothing in the Book. Then unto their Lord they will be gathered.” 6: 38

"He it is who brought forth gardens with trailing and untrailing vines, and the palms and corn land, with various food, and olives, and pomegranates, alike and unlike. Eat from the fruit thereof whenever it fruits, and bring the dues thereof on the harvest day, and be not wasters (greedy or extravagant). Verily, He loves not the wasters." 6:142

"O children of Adam! Take your adornments (clothes, grooming, manners, etiquette etc.) to every place of worship and eat and drink, but do not be extravagant (wasteful), for He loves not the extravagant (wasteful)." 7:31

"And remember how he made you vicegerents (agents, inheritors) after Ad and established you in the earth so that you took for yourselves castles on its plains and hewed out mountains into houses. So remember the bounties of Allah, and waste not the land, despoiling it." 7:74

"And give your kinsman his due and the needy and the son of the road (wayfarer); and squander (waste) not your wealth in wantonness. Lo! The squanderers were ever brothers of the devil; and the devil is ever ungrateful to his Lord." 17:26-27

""And obey not the bidding of the extravagant (profligate, wasters), Who spread corruption in the earth and mend not their ways." 26:151-152

“If He will He can remove you and cause what He will to follow you, even as He raised you from the seed of other folk.” 6:134

The Islamic attitude is that man is the Vicegerent of Allah, and the earth is given to him as a trust. He has responsibilities towards them. Everything, and not only in the earth but also in the heavens can be used for the service of man. But all things should be respected. One of the services they provide is knowledge and experience, not only in the sense of facts, but also proofs and values, enabling us to live correctly. Though the exact nature of his responsibilities is not described we must assume the notion to be wide enough to include whatever problems human activity and history brings into their sphere of awareness and influence.

It is not difficult to see that the Islamic attitude is midway between the arrogant and destructive one found in the Industrial nations, and the paralysing, static attitude found in the undeveloped tribes. Man is not simply a part of nature, but has the duty to develop and progress as well as having a responsibility for the welfare and development of other creatures and the world on which he depends. The duties a person has towards other living things, as implied by one of the verses above, must be regarded as similar to those he has towards human being. It is true, however, that many people in the West rather than in Islamic countries abide by this rule.

It is, of course, perfectly possible to have an interest in, to support and even to identify oneself with one of these different aspects of life separately, that is with psychological development, social organisation or ecological matters. There are many people, for instance, who are active in the ecological cause without being religious. Others support social or political causes, and still others are interested in various kinds of spiritual teachings and meditation techniques. Islam differs from these in having a unified and comprehensive approach. This allows better coordination and consistency. It facilitates psychological integration. It is not too difficult to establish that these different aspects of life are, in fact, inter-dependent. The unified approach, therefore, creates deeper foundations, and ensures a much more secure justification for, and coordination of such interests. It is probably unlikely that man will be able to solve his ecological problems or his social problems without first improving his psychological state. The Quran affirms this. (13:11)

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It is not generally realised that a great number of the Fundamental Factors which have created and led to the superiority and domination of the Western World were introduced into it by Islam. The following may be mentioned:-

1. The idea of Unity behind multiplicity. The distinction between the objectively real and the apparent, the desired or the superficial.

2. The existence of order, law, proportionality and harmony in the Universe. Science is a study of this.

3. The concept of change and development, continuous creation, natural cycles, and yet the existence of something permanent and unchanging behind all these.

4. The scientific attitude. The need to seek knowledge and to apply it, rather than to indulge in abstract purely intellectual speculations as the Greeks did. The need to observe, think, measure, experiment and calculate. The requirement that knowledge should have beneficial application.

5. The need for education, experience and development of faculties.

6. The supremacy of ideas rather than persons and personalities. The Quran, not the Prophet, the message not the messenger has the primary importance.

7. The supremacy of the Law rather than of kings and rulers in human affairs. The need of a judicial system which is independent of Governments. The Quran also provides an independent Constitution.

8. The need for loyalties higher than those limited to narrow clan or tribal boundaries. Islam is, therefore, regarded as having introduced the concept of Nationhood. However, it is wrongly supposed that Islam introduced nationalism in the Western sense with its association with imperialism. Nor did it introduce ideological loyalty into the world, though this transcends nationalism. Islamic loyalty should be firstly to Allah and to the community of Muslims only because of this.

9. Since the Quran is Arabic, the effect was to create a Universal and common language through which people could understand one another. There is a need for a common world language. In a technological and commercial age this is English. But since life is more than these, English may have certain structural limitations. There is reason to believe that Arabic has a structure which allows relationships between concepts to be more in accord with the relationships in nature.

10. The people were united not through external compulsions but through the social disciplines which were integrated into the religious practices. The religious or spiritual practices were integrated into the social institutions, thereby ensuring their permanent influence.

11. The belief in human ability and creativity flows from the notion of vicegerency. The idea of personal responsibility not only for every action but also for everything within ones sphere of influence, however, also needs to be added.

12. Religious and ideological tolerance. People of other faiths found greater freedom under Muslim rule than even among their own regimes. This tolerance does not merely mean that people with whom one disagrees are accommodated, but that different things are suitable for different people, and even that they may also be right.

13. The removal of all class and racial distinctions. The equality before the law and brotherhood of all citizens.

14. The need for mutual consultation, agreements, contracts and treaties, in short, the Democratic spirit.

15. The emphasis on the pen and the written word in order to make permanent and indisputable records of transactions etc.. The Quran itself is a written word.

16. The improvement in the status of women. It is only very recently when industrialization and modern states were formed that the status of women in the West began to improve.

Certain other factors, also integral to Islam, have not been established even in Muslim countries or anywhere else:-

17. The paramount importance of a national and communal spiritual life. The need for self-discipline and psychological development. This aim needs to be incorporated as an integral part of Political policies.

18. The idea of balance, and avoidance of all extremes.

19. The need to cooperate with nature and reality rather than to try to dominate or exploit it.

20. Respect for the agency of others. The avoidance of coercion, domination, conditioning and manipulation of other people.

21. Respect for the planet, its ecosystem and other life forms. Concern for the welfare of all things. The responsible and economical use of resources. The avoidance of waste, vanity and greed.

22. The unity of religion, mankind, and indeed, of all life.

23. The unity and inter-dependence of all aspects of life, the economic, social, political, cultural and spiritual.

24. The inter-dependence and reciprocity of all things. This Principle, which follows from the notion of Unity, is as important as the Principles of Conservation and Relativity, which also follow from Unity.

25. An understanding of what it means to be human. The establishment of an objective ideal and purpose in life. The understanding of the real meaning of success and failure.

26. Objective values. The understanding of the proper meaning of notions such as freedom, property, wealth, purpose, success, usefulness, truth, goodness, beauty.

27. There is a tendency towards either mythology or towards a mechanistic frame of mind. One extreme leads to the other. They give rise to opposite forms of superstition. Islam is a balance in that it has to a large extent demythologised religion without adopting a mechanistic view of the Universe. Though this latter is slowly being abandoned by science, it still exists in the way people think and behave and in social organisation.

28. Since all things, including religions and civilisations, rise because of an impulse and then degenerate, being replaced by others, methods must be studied and applied which will impart the necessary impulses to continue steady development. This is made necessary and urgent by the fact that the world is moving rapidly towards uniformity and unity, If this happens then no replacements for a degenerating civilisation will be found.

29. The incorporation of diversity and flexibility in a unitary system. This unification of the world should not, and probably cannot be done, until it is certain that the direction of development is the correct one or that variety and flexibility is incorporated in the system. Otherwise disaster for mankind will follow.

30. Western systems have also been unable to solve the following problems:- addiction to alcohol, drugs and violence; crime and delinquency; neurosis, psychosis. and psychopathy; the frustrations and social disruption caused by surplus women; disharmonious relationship between the sexes; gambling; selfishness and greed; sexual immorality and perversion; superstitions, prejudices and faults in thinking; social problems connected with the gap between the generations; the increasing gap between rich and poor: industrial and political unrest: racial prejudices and conflicts: economic depressions and the misery they bring: the problems of organisation regarding the power of the state and individual freedom.

The establishment of suitable principles to deal with all these aspects of life remains a task for Islam.

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Islam may be regarded as having the following levels:-

1. A Spiritual aspect.

2. An Ideological aspect - theology, philosophy, cosmology etc.

3. A Cultural aspect - science, art, medicine, education, civics, etc.

4. An Ethical and Legal aspect - the Shariat.

5. A Social aspect - marriage, family life, etiquette.

6. A Political aspect.

7. An Economic aspect.

8. The Structures - cities, buildings, factories, gardens, parks etc.

The creative impulse must be thought of as descending. That is each level is dependant on the previous one and not the other way round. The exact nature of a system will depend on the conditions existing at the time and place. The usual tendency is for the influence to move upwards, the physical conditions affect the economic, these affect the political and so on. Each level has its own inertia or independent processes.

If we use the words political, economic, social, ethical and cultural in the western sense as excluding the spiritual dimension then clearly Islam is a religious system not a political, economic, cultural etc system. But these words cannot be used in this sense within Islam. Nor can the word, system, be used in the western sense as being a rigid structure which exclude other rigid structures. A system consists of a particular point of view. In reality things exist in multiple dynamic relationships with each other so that they can be described in numerous ways and these descriptions are not mutually exclusive. Islam is often feared and, therefore, opposed by others on the assumption that it is a rival political system, but there is no justification for this. The Muslim is required to abide by the laws of the people among whom he lives. This is part of Surrender. Muslims themselves often oppose the setting up of an Islamic State for similar reasons. But since Islam is essentially Democratic, such a State should only be established if the majority want it. It cannot be established by force.

It has to be emphasized that:-

(a) When the Prophet Muhammad was offered a Secular Kingship, power and wealth by those in Mecca who held it, he rejected them. Instead, he set out to create his own system based on spiritual principles. When it became impossible to lead a life based on religious principles in Mecca he and his followers migrated to Medina. There are people, even Muslims, who argue that, therefore, a distinction should be made between the religious and the secular. This idea is rejected here. The Prophet made no such compromise.

(b) No description of any economic, political or other of these systems are to be found in either the Quran or the Hadith. But systems based on the principles contained in them have been constructed and elaborated by those who took them as the basis of their thinking and life. Some Muslims argue that, therefore, these systems cannot be included under the term “Islam”, that Islam refers only to what exists in the Quran and Hadith. This idea is partly true in that the particular forms do not belong to Islam. But the principles do. The word “Islam” refers to a state of living, and this includes all its aspects. However, the word ‘Islam” could also be used in the Historical sense so that it includes all things which have arisen in connection with it. But this use of the word should be distinguished from its use when referring to its definitions in the Quran.

(c) A distinction has to be made between systems which are based on Islamic principles and those which are not, even if they occurred in Islamic countries. Most Islamic countries have no such system now, and are not, therefore, considered to be Islamic.

It is not only political and economic thinkers who elaborated and applied the teachings, but there have been well recognized Saints who also elaborated the Spiritual System. There is no justification for rejecting these while admitting economic, political or philosophic systems. The distinction between the principles and the forms apply to these as well.

Islam may also be represented by 7 concentric circles thus:-

1. Allah

2. The Quran or the Word of Allah.

3. The Prophets or Messengers

4. The Religious or Spiritual System

5. The Ideological or cultural System

6. The Social System

7. The Physical System, buildings, cities etc.

These concentric circles can be regarded in two ways. Allah could be represented by the inmost circle from where the power radiates outwards creating the other circles. Or Allah could be represented by the outermost circle, within which all the other circles are successively contained. It is also possible to represent this by a pyramid having seven levels. The Material World is the lowest. In a sense this corresponds to the way the Universe is constructed. Though the force derives from the Apex and pervades each level, it also undergo transformation at each level according to the processes current there, producing its own forces.

The Quran represents the Word, Commandment or Spirit of Allah in human affairs. It is equivalent in nature to the Laws on which the Universe is based. And the Quran is ‘naught else than a reminder unto creation’ (81:27). The Prophets or Messengers become channels for it in human affairs. They translate it into human terms, and apply it. They create a religion or way of life. This is equivalent to the processes and behaviour nature conforms to. This, in its turn, gives rise to an entire culture, its philosophy and intellectual life. People brought up under that culture will be educated and formed by it, and their interactions will be governed by it. This will determine what they do and produce, and how they change their environments.

If we use the word “world” or “earth” to refer to the lower triad (i.e. 5, 6 and 7), then we could use the word “heaven” to refer to the upper triad (1, 2 and 3). The 4th circle, then creates a bridge between the two. It mediates between heaven and earth. We have three levels, Esoteric, Mesoteric and Exoteric, the Divine, the Intermediate and the Human. When speaking about Islam it is necessary to determine which of these levels is being spoken of. It may be that the speaker is referring to the physical structures, the society or the culture produced by Muslims rather than the religion. Or he may be speaking about the religion as taught by the Prophet or about the reality behind it.

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Islam is the Straight Path (1:5) rather than a destination. But this straight path can be thought of as consisting of 7 levels or paths (23:17). These may be regarded as corresponding to the 7 heavens which also correspond to 7 levels of consciousness. Thus though the Universe is one, it is the levels of consciousness which divide it into levels. The Prophet Muhammad is said to have made a journey through the 7 heavens (53:8-18).

These 7 paths or levels of Islam can be interpreted as follows:-

The Biosphere, we know, has undergone several separate periods of development interspersed with massive destruction, extinctions and renewals. Allah, as it were, experiments, tests and selects in order to guide development and evolution. Human beings may be said to have come into existence in the last of this succession of Eras. But mankind itself undergoes periods of development, destruction and renewed development. Adam represents the first conscious man as well as the whole race of conscious men. But the civilisation constructed by them became corrupt and was destroyed by the Flood of Noah, Only few human beings survived represented by the family of Noah. The Ark represents the knowledge gathered by these people - the seeds garnered, as it were, from the former civilisation to be sown in a new attempt at gradually recreating civilisation. The descendants of Noah settled and attempted this in centres such as China, India, Egypt and Central America, This knowledge which remained mostly esoteric in the early days because few understood it was to be released slowly from time to time and it is this which forms the religions and is responsible for gradual human development, a new ascent. From the Islamic point of view there is only one religion though it has several dispensations and levels, and it is known as Islam, which ought to be understood in its technical sense, namely ”Surrender to Allah•. Its levels can be described as follows:-

1. The establishment of a sense of the divine, of the spiritual, the heavenly, the transcendental, of unity beyond the multiplicity, of harmony and order. To lift human consciousness from the mundane to a higher plane and give them a sense of purpose and direction. This religion is represented by the Prophet Abraham. It is the kind of religion which existed in ancient Egypt and India.

2. The Egyptian civilisation degenerated and its seeds were rescued by the Hebrews, descendants of Abraham. Moses, who had learnt all the wisdom of the Egyptians and had also been instructed by his father-in-law Jethro, an Ishmaelite Midianite priest, led the Hebrews out of Egypt and they later established a high civilisation in Palestine under Kings David and Solomon. The religion of the Hebrews put emphasis on the Justice of God, and therefore, on Law, action, ritual and hope.

3. The Hebrew religion declined, Palestine was conquered and the Hebrews were taken into captivity in Babylon and later in Persia, This allowed their influence to spread into the East as well as into Greece where it affected Philosophy. But the times were ripe for the next stage. Jesus came with a message which placed emphasis on the Love of God, and on feelings, motives, humanitarian and social concerns and personal relationships. Christianity is based on this. It established its civilisation in the Roman Empire but then declined into formalism, sentimentality, emotional excesses and hypocrisy where people attributed good intentions to themselves..

4. The next stage brought the Prophet Muhammad with Islam. This religion while maintaining the qualities established in the previous dispensations added another dimension, the emphasis on truth, knowledge, awareness, on the order and harmony in nature. But it also laid down the potentialities for three further stages. Islam was religion completed and Muhammad was the last of the Prophets, though Jesus was to return and re-establish Islam after its degeneration. The implication is that the outer manifestations of religion end with Islam and it is a bridge to what is much more psychological and spiritual in nature.

5. The fifth level can be thought of as its Universalism. Allah sent Prophets and Messengers to all parts of the world and no distinction was to be made between the messengers, or between them and God - they represented God on earth. Properly understood this implies that Muslims ought to accept and study all the scriptures of the world and come to a knowledge which transcends the particular peculiarities of each.

6. Islam contains the idea of Tawhid, Unity, beyond all diversity and of Harmony and Levels of order. The implication is that all things are parts of a whole which is a part of a still greater whole and so on. The whole is more than the sum of the parts and controls the parts. The parts must adjust to the whole. All parts arise because of their function or purpose with respect to the whole which has a purpose with respect to Allah. Another implication is that there is no absolute distinction between matter, life (or mind) and consciousness, but that these are different aspect of things, though different things can have these characteristics to various degrees from maximum subtlety or potency to maximum inertia. Connected with this is the idea of Vicegerency. Human beings are part of the universal system and the evolutional process and have a function in it, a responsibility with respect to all things.

7. Ultimately, the aim is to create the Kingdom of God on Earth. This requires a community of human beings who are fully voluntarily Surrendered to Allah, and can act with their own initiative and creativity on behalf of God. “Say: Lo! My service and my sacrifice and my living and my dying are for Allah, Lord of the Worlds. He hath no partner. This I am commanded, and I am the first of those who surrender.• 6:163-164 This requires a great amount of self-discipline. This community ought to consist of highly conscious being who act in unison because they have a collective consciousness which is also connected to the Universal Consciousness. ”Hold fast, all of you together, to the cable of Allah, and do not separate...• 3:105 Attempts at establishing a system on earth as it is in heaven were made to various degrees and for brief periods in ancient Egypt, in Palestine by Jews, by Christian communities in the early days of Christianity and by Muslims in Medina. But these attempts failed because people were still far from sufficiently developed. This, we are assured, is yet to come - the meek and humble will inherit the earth.

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It is generally believed that whereas science depends on evidence and consistency of facts, and that philosophy depends on the validity of arguments and consistency of meanings, religion depends on blind faith. In a rational age, therefore, religion has become irrelevant. It is true that Islam requires belief. But this is not understood as being blind. On the contrary it is the unbeliever who is considered to be blind. A belief is a condition in which a consistency of ideas and values is achieved. This depends on experiences and the capacity to integrate them, so that it becomes relevant to the individual. Faith is an insight, an intuition. Unbelief is a defect of the understanding. No amount of evidence or consistency of argument is likely to convince those who have this defect.

“ Have they not traveled in the land, and have they not hearts wherewith to feel and ears wherewith to hear? For indeed it is not the eyes that grow blind, but the hearts which are in their bosoms, that grow blind.” 22:46

Western Scientists believe that doubt and skepticism are the beginning of knowledge. This assumes that belief can be placed in something false, and that there is a distinction between believing and knowing. From the Islamic point of view, we cannot know that something is false unless it is contrary to what we know as true. While we believe it, it is taken as true. Things in which one has doubts cannot constitute knowledge. It is unreasonable to say that one believes something and at the same time to state that it is untrue. To know something is to have experienced of it. Belief refers to understanding. It connects or resonates with something within one. It is possible to believe something without knowing it, and knowing something without believing it. It is possible to state that one believes something or even believe that one believes something without, in fact, believing it and acting in accord with it. We believe it when it is consistent with a system of experiences and our mental structure, and the way we integrate experiences. The degree of belief will depend on the degree of consistency. It may well be that a different system, a greater system or a more organized system of experiences, will alter the belief. Belief, therefore, tells us something about the person, Doubt implies that we have not assimilated and integrated something with the rest of our experiences. From this point of view there are no absolutely false beliefs, Each is true with respect to its own framework, or relatively false in comparison with a more comprehensive framework. Belief in the Islamic sense, therefore, refers to something which has been integrated into the comprehensive framework of the Islamic world-view so that life and action can be based on it. Unbelief consists of ignoring or repressing an idea because of some prejudice, self-interest or fantasy.

Saying that one believes something is not the same as believing it. The affirmation of a verbal statement does not constitute belief either. Dogmatism, for instance, consists of statements made by people that they believe some verbal formula which they do not understand and which may be differently understood by different people. Something is not necessarily true because it fits into the models of thinking of some individual or set of individuals. Nor is it necessarily false because it is excluded from such models. Verbal disputations are, therefore, considered futile. The proper procedure is to try to understand.

Islam does not ask its followers to disbelieve the infidel, but to believe the message of the Prophets. Understanding dispels delusion.

Faith should not be confused with fanaticism. This is an obsession which narrows the mind down instead of expanding it. Though Islam requires enthusiasm and single-mindedness in religion, religious fanaticism is no part of Islam. The Muslim is required to act from knowledge not passion or sentiment. The fanatic is to be distinguished by the fact that he requires other people to adhere to the letter of the Islamic teaching as he understands it, even to the extent of persecuting those who do not. He becomes self-righteous. He overlooks its spirit, and himself flouts its teachings, often in the most obvious manner. The cause of fanaticism appears to be the desire to hide and suppress ones own doubts, insecurity and guilt feelings both from oneself and others, the desire to transfer blame. It is also caused by social or economic self interest, and by attachment to the appendages of religion. It is easier, for instance, to cling to a doctrine than to carry out a discipline. None of these can be regarded as valid justifications. Fanaticism has many degrees from the most extreme to the very subtle. Religious people who are distinguishable from a non-religious people, not because of their motives and actions, but only because of mannerisms and fixations in interests, thoughts, conversation and even in dress, are fanatics and people generally avoid them. However, religion matters, and ought to matter, to a religious person. It is not possible for him to be emotionally, intellectually or actively indifferent with respect to it. If he is, then religion cannot matter sufficiently for him, and it is useless.

Islam requires that:-

(a) Allah is the judge, not man.

(b) Each person is responsible for his own actions, not that of other.

(c) Other religions when practised correctly are recognised as valid.

(d) People differ both inherently and because of their circumstances. Different things may be suitable for them.

(e) People are required to help each other.

(f) Outer actions are judged by inner intentions.

(g) Sins do not condemn a man. A man is judged by the balance of the good and evil he does.

A man who commits a sin or does a wrong or error is not to be condemned for that. There is probably no one who has not fallen short of the ideal. A man may have had overwhelming temptation, or he may have been a victim of accident or ignorance. A man may repent. He may also make amends. He may have done a number of good deeds. He may have struggled heroically against great inner or outer odds and failed. On the other hand someone who appears to have done good may have done so accidentally, or because he could not help it, or because he knew no better. Or perhaps he could have done better and did not. The final judgment is a question of balance between the good and evil intentions. Ignorance is not always an excuse, since it is a duty of the individual to seek appropriate knowledge. Nor can circumstances be blamed in every case, since it is a duty for a Muslim to arrange suitable circumstances and to migrate to conditions where he can do his duties. Nor is it always possible to blame ones inherited nature, upbringing or environment, because the religious influences are present in the environment to counteract them.

According to the Prophet, and also affirmed by the Quran, it is the last state before a person’s death which determines his condition after it, no matter what he may have done in his life. It has been supposed by some people that this means one can continue to sin all one’s life with impunity as long as one repents just before death. Apart from the fact that death may come suddenly without giving one the chance to repent, the idea is false in another sense. The state in which a person is at the end of his life depends on the cumulative effects of his behaviour throughout life. One cannot truly repent at will because it is expedient to do so.

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Most Muslim countries are ruled over by dictators, tyrants, kings, self-appointed priests and secular authorities which are thoroughly corrupt and use religion as means to their ends. It is falsely supposed in the West that this is an inherent feature of Islam. Though such governments can be attributed in part to the support and manipulations of Western political and commercial interest, it reflects the degenerate condition of the people who allow themselves to be so governed.

The Islamic attitude may be seen in the following verses.

”Whatever of good befalls you, O man, it is from Allah, and whatever ill befalls you it is from yourselves.” 4:79

”Whosoever obeys the messenger obeys Allah, and whosoever turns away We have not sent you as a warder over them.” 4:80

”O you who believe, you have charge of your own souls. He who errs cannot injure you if you are rightly guided.” 5:105

”Whosoever goes right, it is only for the good of his own soul that he goes right, and whosoever errs, errs only to its hurt. No laden soul can bear another’s load.“” 17:15

”Say: He is able to send punishment upon you from above you or from beneath your feet, or to bewilder you with dissension and make you taste the tyranny one of another. See how We display the revelations so that you may understand. Thy people (O Muhammad) have denied it, though it is the truth. Say: I am not put in charge of you.” 6:65

“Say: Obey Allah and obey the Messenger. But if ye turn away, then it is for him to do only that wherewith he hath been charged, and for you to do only that wherewith ye have been charged. If ye obey him, ye will go aright. But the Messenger hath no other charge than to convey the message plainly.” 24:54

“There is no compulsion in religion. The right direction is henceforth distinct from error. And he who has rejected false deities and believes in Allah hath grasped a firm hand hold which will never break. Allah is Hearer, Knower. Allah is the protecting friend of those who believe. He brings them out of darkness into light. As for those who disbelieve, their patrons are false deities. They bring them out of light into darkness. Such are rightful owners of the Fire. They will abide therein.” 2:256-257

”The guidance of them is not thy duty (O Muhammad), but Allah guides whom He will.” 2:272

”Let not their conduct grieve thee, who run easily to disbelief, for lo, they injure Allah not at all.” 3:176

“Allah would explain to you and guide you by the examples of those who were before you, and would turn to you in mercy. Allah is Knower, Wise. And Allah would turn to you in mercy, but those who follow vain desires would have you go tremendously astray. Allah would make the burden light for you, for man was created weak.” 4:26 - 28

“It is only the devil who would make men fear his partisans. Fear them not: Fear Me, if you are true believers.” 3:175

For a Muslim who recognizes Allah as the supreme authority, and Muhammad, the first head of the Muslim State, as His representative, there cannot be any tolerance for dictators or autocrats of any kind. Nor can there be any Democracy in the sense that the arbitrary whims, impulses, interests and opinions of groups, parties or even of the majority should govern their lives.

There are, in general, only seven courses open to people.

1. To remain primitive and undeveloped and subject to the chance forces of the environment, and to be blown like the straw, as it were, in the wind.

2. To be forced to do what is right either by others or by circumstances.

3. To subject themselves voluntarily to the instructions of those who have virtue, wisdom and knowledge. These may be experts who have gathered knowledge accumulated over generations.

4. To learn from the life and example of such experts.

5. To learn from experience through trial and error, mistakes and chance, like the child who discovers that fire burns by putting his finger into it. Irreversible damage may then have been done, and the experience of all past generations is wasted.

6. To learn from observation, reflection, meditation, reasoning, testing, measuring, calculating, experimentation.

7. Developing an increased capacity for awareness, interest and self-control.

The word Revolution is used to refer to relatively rapid radical changes. These could be ideological, political, social or economic in nature, e.g. the Scientific, the Industrial and the Communist Revolutions. Owing to the fact that human beings suffer from inertia and limited capacity for adaptation because they are subject to conditioning and habit formation, these often bring about great suffering, particularly when they are forced on people by military means. Islam was revolutionary in several senses. It did not, however, create a revolutionary movement in the military sense, though some military action for self-defense was necessary. The problem with most revolutionary movements is that they try to establish an Ideal without considering the existing realities. As in all human activities, here too an action will have an equal and opposite reaction. All movements beginning with high ideals are neutralized by the anti-ideal, in religious terms, by Satan. The secular revolutionary, and many a religious fanatic, wants to impose his ideals on everyone. This desire for compulsion itself contradicts the ideal. As the verses above show Islam envisages a voluntary obedience to authority. The people themselves have to be converted, and the social structure they create applies only to these converts. The Muslims withdrew to Medina to establish their social system. There is to be no compulsion in religion (2:256). Islam, therefore, differs radically from secular revolutionary movements.

It has become the habit among many peoples, propagated by a study of modern psychology, to blame their actions and conditions on Society, the physical environment, their inheritance, their parents and upbringing, Fate or even to God. This absolves the individual from blame. This attitude derives from Science which always tries to find an external cause for all things. To change things, therefore, external force and manipulation has to be used. People band together, even when they differ, in order to try to impose their wills on the rest of Society. All collective movements, such as communism, have this tendency. This attitude itself creates the conditions which justify it. The problem, however, is that if the individual is not to blame then neither are the parents, the environment or anyone else for the same reasons. There is no hope in such a situation. Though all kinds of inner and outer forces do exist and affect the individual, the point remains that these causes are in the memory of the individual. So are the religious teachings. He can process the data and manipulate himself. This is what makes him responsible as well as free. Islam teaches personal responsibility. What others do is their responsibility and what the person does is his responsibility. He cannot blame his actions on what others do to him. The verse above is addressed particularly to the believers. They have even less excuse seeing that they have the guidance. The teaching is an instruction, a cause which modifies behaviour, thereby becoming a truth.

However, this freedom is limited. The individual is expected to make an effort, but not necessarily to succeed. External methods of removing temptations and providing adequate encouragement and possibilities must also be used. Communism is, therefore, quite incompatible with Islam. The individual is responsible for the effects he has within his sphere of influence. That is, on all and everything with which he comes into contact directly or indirectly.

The cause for the Communist Revolution was, of course, the fact that individuals accumulate wealth for themselves at the expense of the community. They seldom use it for the benefit of the community. A community consists of inter-dependent individuals, and therefore, the good of the individuals in it is dependant on the good of the community and vice versa. But this can only be so if there are no individuals who exploit others for their own advantages, or for the advantages of an exclusive group of people, or even for the good of the ‘State’ or ‘Nation’. In particular the ‘good’ of the nation is often served by exploiting or persecuting other peoples and nations or even sections within the same nation. These are certainly defects which need to be eradicated, but the Communists were unable to do this. They merely set up a different ruling class.

They also misunderstood the real problem. The “good” was understood in an external sense. It referred to some political or commercial advantage. to increase in power, wealth or prestige. This, however, is a misunderstanding of the word “good”. As the verses quoted above show, good and evil refer to the psychological benefits or harm done by an action to the individual who does them. Murder and Theft, Lying and Injuring are evil because they harm the soul or psyche of the person who does them. By extension they are evil because they harm the community which does them or allows them. Most of these political or commercial aims are self-contradictory. They produce more problems than they solve. The troubles they cause elsewhere must necessary return to them because of the inter-dependence of peoples. The political troubles in the world today have been created by the past political activities of nations. In an attempt to solve these problems the nations are still consulting their own short term interests, thereby creating more long term problems for themselves. Fundamentally, both the cause of the problems and the ability to solve them depends on the quality of the human beings.

There is also an ambiguity in the way the words “good” and “evil” are used. The same actions which might be considered evil when done to others within the same community are often considered good when done against another community or against individuals belonging to another community. Good is similarly transformed into evil. To avoid the contradiction the mind has to suppress it. This does not, however, deceive the unconscious psyche. Killing in war, for instance, is regarded as legitimate and not as murder, though in most wars it is done for exactly the same reasons, i.e for profit, power or prestige rather than self-defence. But it has to be given a moral garb. Morality is separated from Politics, Commerce and science. Islam makes no such distinctions. What is good or evil for the individual is good or evil for the community. Had it been correctly understood people would not admire the Conquerors and Empire Builders throughout history who went about slaughtering, raping , destroying and pillaging, and were nothing but psychopaths.

Human behaviour is governed by 7 possible factors, namely inner compulsion, impulse, habit, accident, external compulsion, opinions, and conscience. From the Islamic point of view, behaviour should be governed ideally by conscience, and in so far as it is not yet active, by belief or faith. Where the capacity for faith is absent, then by a self-discipline which will produce it. This however may require a body of ideas without which it will not be undertaken. Compulsion contradicts personal responsibility. The word compulsion, however, has several degrees. It includes any kind of physical restraints, coercion, threats, pressures, bribery, and conditioning. The threat of punishment by death, pain or loss of livelihood, or bribery by offering various kinds of advantages, do not, in fact, produce belief, but only create outer modification of behaviour. The process of ordinary education, propaganda, persuasion or training, may produce what is called belief, but not in the Islamic sense. It produces prejudices, a non-intelligent acceptance. To have a piece of information is not the same thing as understanding it. Understanding implies that the piece of information has been “chewed, digested and assimilated”. That is, some thinking has been done and it has been analyzed and its elements have been integrated with the rest of experience. It is now available for use and application.

The Quran does appear to offer bribes in the form of Paradise, and threatens with Hell. This may be regarded as a form of conditioning. In the absence of sophisticated forms of organization and education it is probably unlikely that people could have sustained the basic moralities necessary to create a viable and developing social system without conditioning. Indeed, the rising crime rate and moral depravity in the West shows that even then morality cannot be sustained without religious indoctrination. However, the correct way of looking at this is that it is a statement of facts rather than an attempt to condition. Heaven and Hell are the results of correct or incorrect intention and behaviour. The correct behaviour is to act from the love of Allah (76:9 and 3:31), and this include the love of Truth and Goodness. To act from fear of Hell or love of Paradise is not correct behaviour, unless Hell is understood as separation from Allah and Paradise as nearness to Allah. To do so does not constitute surrender to Allah.

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Islam is surrender to Allah exclusively. This implies that the following saying of Jesus, as commonly understood, does not apply to Muslims, namely:-

“Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and unto God the things that are God’s.” Mark 12:17

The Prophet Muhammad was offered worldly power and wealth, but he refused it on the same grounds as Jesus did, namely that his kingdom was not of this world. However, unlike Jesus, he set about creating an alternate order based on moral and spiritual principles.

Everything belongs to Allah. It is, therefore, impossible for the Muslim to separate a secular from a religious life. He cannot separate politics or commerce, art or science, custom or law from religion. He cannot compartmentalize himself. It is because man compartmentalizes himself that he loses touch with the unity of life, as well as of himself, mankind and the Universe. However, this saying of Jesus can be understood quite differently, in accordance with:-

“Naught is the life of the world but a pastime and a game. Better by far is the abode of the Hereafter for those who keep their duty to Allah. Have you then no sense?” 6:32 and 29:64, 40:39

“Know that the life of this world is only play, and idle talk, and pageantry, and boasting among you, and rivalry in respect of wealth and children..” 57:20

“But of mankind is he who says: Our Lord! Give unto us in the world. But he has no portion in the Hereafter. And of them is also he who says: Our Lord! Give unto us in the world that which is good, and in the Hereafter that which is good, and guard us from the doom of fire. For them is in store a goodly portion out of that which they have earned.” 2:200-201

It could be understood as implying that whereas we must do what is required by our environment in order to fit into it without conflict and tension, we must not be distracted by this from our true goal. The Muslim is required to separate himself from “the life of the world”, that is, from frivolous and purposeless ambitions, rivalries and behaviour derived from greed, pride and vanity. He acknowledges the demands of the world, both of others and even in himself, and may even cater to them, but does not regard them as of primary importance. He may, for instance, see in himself or in other people, greed, or the laziness of habit, or the pride of achievement, or the competitive desire to dominate, outdo others or to boast. He will not be dominated by these. He may indulge them when they do no harm. He does not identify himself with the worldly self. A separation is achieved internally between the “Self” and “I”. The ego is set aside as a child which may need disciplining but also indulgence.

The following saying of Paul, the Christian Apostle, whose teachings are considered to be the main influence on the development of Christianity, cannot be accepted by Muslims unless also understood in a different way:-

“ For if you live after the flesh, you shall die; but if you through the Spirit do mortify the deeds of the body, you shall live.” Romans 8:14

“For the flesh lusts against the spirit, and the spirit against the flesh: and these are contrary the one to the other: so that you cannot do the things that you would do. But if you be led by the spirit, you are not under the law. Now the works of the flesh are manifest, which are these: adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, idolatry, witchcraft, hatred, variance, emulation, wrath, strife, sedition, heresies, envying, murders, drunkenness, reveling, and such like... But the fruit of the spirit is Love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith, meekness, temperance: against such there is no law.” Galatians 5:17- 23

Whereas Islam certainly recognizes that the two classes of behaviour are good and evil, and there is a conflict in man between them, it does not attribute the evil to the flesh, but the distorted mind. It does not, therefore, require the denial and mortification of the flesh. It does not demand celibacy, austerity and monasticism. The needs of the flesh have to be recognized and satisfied. The body is an instrument to be kept in good order and used for good purposes. It is a perfect harmonious instrument. Nor is there a conflict in the spiritual world, between Allah and Satan, since Allah created Satan and permitted him to tempt man. The conflict exists in the mind because of its attachments or fixations. For instance, we need food to nourish us, but greed is a desire which has gone beyond its purpose. The cause of the conflict is the position of the mind between the spirit and the body, consciousness and instinct, the demands made by what is objective and universal and the demands made by the restricted life on earth. The freedom of man comes from the existence of the mind on which neither Allah nor Satan exert compulsion. But both enter suggestions or impulses into it.

It is probable that Paul also meant a mental conflict between attachment to the spirit and attachment to physical senses, for he tells us:-

“Know you not that you are the temple of God, and that the Spirit of God dwells in you?” 1 Corinthians 3:16

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Islam is sometimes represented by four symbols which summarize the whole of it. Namely, “The Book, the Kaaba, the Sword , and the Flag ”.

This corresponds to the human faculties for thinking, action and motivation and consciousness. Or knowledge, ability, allegiance and purpose. Or faith, hope, love and identity.

The Book is the Quran, the source of knowledge, ideas and motives, that which makes us conscious of Reality. It represents the objective forces in the Universe and may also be regarded as providing a cultural and political Constitution.

The Kaaba is the centre of orientation and integration. It represents Allah in the Universe, the Social Centre for Muslims and the Real Self within the Psyche. It is the goal of life which guides all activity. It is the centre around which psychological, social and outer unity is to be achieved.

The Sword represents the struggle against the opposition of evil, external, social and inner. It also represents power, discipline and self-sacrifice; the willingness to fight for what is right and good. It represents the duties of man. Jesus, too, mentions the sword in this sense.

“Think not that I am come to bring peace on earth: I came not to send peace, but a sword.” Matt 10:34

The Islamic flag shows a crescent moon with a star in it. The moon shines by reflected light. It. therefore, represents the human personality with all its limitations. The star is a sun which is the source of radiations and represents the spirit within. The implication is that the outer personality must increasingly reflect the inner spirit, but must decline to let the light through. The moon illuminates the night which represents spiritual darkness, both in the world and the individual. Islam came to bring enlightenment.

Symbols, slogans and flags have the unfortunate tendency to form unintelligent and sentimental attachments in those who are not wary. The result is automatic reactions which reduce man to moronic behaviour and insults human dignity. In fact they ought to act as reminders of what the purposes and goals of life are, thereby increasing awareness and self-control.

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There are legends all over the world about a golden age in the far past. Humanity was then united in one community, enjoying great prosperity, peace and a high culture. Geological evidence shows that even the continents in the distant past formed a single land mass. Some great disaster, having both an environmental and psychological aspect is said to have struck the world which destroyed this civilization and scattered the people so that they lost touch with another. Civilization, then, had to be rebuilt slowly and painfully. It is likely that the primitive tribes which are to be found in various parts of the world today consist of people who have degenerated from a higher level rather than having failed to evolve from a lower. This destruction may have happened several times. Another similar disaster is threatening the present age. One of these legends in known in the West and refers to Atlantis. It is possible that the Flood of Noah also refers to this. The existence of Adam in Paradise and his subsequent expulsion may also refer to this. Note also the following verse:-

“ Mankind were one community, and Allah sent unto them prophets as bearers of good tidings and as Warners, and revealed therewith the Scriptures with the truth that it might judge between mankind concerning that wherein they differ. And only those unto whom the scripture was given differed concerning it, after clear proof had come unto them, through hatred of one another.” 2:213 also 10:19

The Purpose of Islam is to re-establish this single world-wide civilization. It cannot, however be done without being based on truth and the capacity to abide by it. This is because truth is a single thing while opinions and speculations are diverse. The Story of the Tower of Babel in the Old Testament refers to the scattering of people. Though they were trying to ascend to Heaven they did not use natural stones but man-made bricks.

The scattering of mankind appears to have produced four areas of civilization, in ancient China, India, the Middle East and in America. A distinction can be observed between four different types of religion and the civilizations they gave rise to.

1. The Western religions derived from the Middle East, are monotheistic and intolerance has been attributed to them. The history of Christianity certainly shows this to be the case. The reason for this appears to be that if the ultimate all comprehensive unity is assumed to be incorporated in ones own limited understanding then all other opinions which differ from this must be assumed to be both false and evil. Things are made even worse when this religion has an organized human authority with power over the people. Monotheism promotes a hierarchical organization, a tendency towards totalitarianism. The disadvantages and advantages of organization are that they channel efforts by narrowing them down and concentrating them effectively into particular directions. Diversity and quality is sacrificed to intensity and quantity. The organization tries to expand and protect its power, wealth and prestige against everything which threatens it. Truth, virtue and beauty become irrelevant. It tries to create conformity by techniques of compulsion, conditioning and threat. The human spirit can only be freed from these shackles by removing the power of this authority. But this creates diversity through sectarianism, and conflict can only be avoided by separating religion from secular politics and economics. Religion becomes irrelevant, and the people are deprived of the evolutionary force. The inner or psychological aspect of life is entirely neglected in favour of the material aspect. However, the tendency towards strict disciplined organization, coercion and intolerance continues to exist, and is diverted towards the peoples of other cultures and civilizations.

2. The religion of India is Polytheist. It is also philosophic in nature. Tolerance is attributed to such a system. There are spiritual teachers but they do not form an organized group, and no conformity of opinion is required. These teachers are required to practice what they preach. They do not possess wealth or power to be expanded or protected. Spiritual ideas continue to inform the daily life of the people at the expense of social and material considerations, because no necessity has arisen to stop conflicts by removing their power. The intelligentsia here withdraws from the community, leaving it to its own devices and its own ignorance. Whereas charity was given to relieve the suffering of the poor and deprived in the West, it is given to sustain the religious in India. It is, however, necessary to point out that the learned in the religions of India recognize that there is only one God, but that He has many attributes. The diversity of gods worshipped by the people refer to these attributes. Polytheism is tolerated because of the simplicity of the people whose capacity for comprehension is limited. But if teachings are reduced to the level at which people are, then no development can be expected. There is little doubt that the majority of the people are trapped in a rut of superstition and ineffectiveness. No development of any kind has taken place for hundreds of years. On the contrary the religion itself has degenerated. As the people were unorganized and split into many groups it was comparatively easy for the organized Western powers to conquer and exploit India and destroy its civilization.

3. The third kind of religion is that which informs the Chinese civilization. This is based not on philosophy but on social ethics. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism have their hold here. It is supposed that the concept of god is entirely absent here. This, however, is untrue. Though the word “God” is not mentioned, an ultimate unitary force is certainly recognized. Ancestor worship implies the people were most conscious of their origins and social unity. Though they made many inventions they did not exploit these commercially. Social responsibility was more important for them. The intelligentsia devoted themselves to administrative problems. The Chinese developed a highly sophisticated civilization and banned intercourse with the Western nations which they saw as barbarians. They regarded these people as violent, greedy, selfish, intolerant and without a sense of social morality or propriety. The West wanted much from China, but the Chinese wanted nothing from the West. Therefore, to establish trade the Western merchants began to poison and disable the Chinese with opium. When the Chinese authorities protested the West defeated and destroyed that civilization by the use of the technology they had learned from China itself.

4. The fourth type of religion, to be found among the Red Indians of America, is based on nature and spirits. They were able to created three great civilizations, the Mayas, Aztecs and the Incas which in many ways resembled that of ancient Egypt. The people see themselves as part of the world and its processes. They do not set out to subdue and exploit it, but rather work with it. They had no idea of property and little of possessions. This civilization, too, was an easy victim to the West with its ideas of property, the right to exploit nature and greed for gold. Millions of people were murdered and their resources and territories taken away. Many more millions died due to deprivation. Indeed, the Industrial revolution in the West was given its impetus by the gold, resources and territories they had robbed.

Although Islam is regarded as a Monotheist Religion, and even of the ultimate type, and has indeed shown some intolerance in the past, it has not been as intolerant as Christianity. Religious intolerance and exclusiveness is no part of its teaching. Hindus, Buddhists, Christians and Jews have lived in complete freedom under Muslim rule, and inter-communal conflicts were introduced only later by Christian rulers. Islam should be regarded as combining the four kinds of religion into a unity. Though Allah is One he has many attributes and He is not a person or a thing to be represented by any similitudes. He pervades all nature including human beings. The significance of the concept “Allah” certainly lies in the ethical or social field, but also in the material and psychological fields. The Muslim people were not held together by a compulsive organization but by a common faith. The spiritual, social and material elements existed in more or less balanced proportion. Effort had not been concentrated into technology. The Islamic civilization, too, was first destroyed by the Mongols under Chenghis Khan and later by the technologically and organizationally superior Western powers who had obtained much of their knowledge from the Islamic countries themselves.

Thus Civilizations always tend to be destroyed by barbarians, though not until they degenerate. It appears that either we have to define civilization differently or else we have to admit that civilization is not a proper goal to pursue. Or we have to recognize that civilizations which are not world-wide, but exist in confined areas only cannot be sustained. People interact and the world is one. When the world is divided and people are primitive then there is a necessity for self-defense and the maintenance of a superior military power. The Islamic point of view combines these alternatives. Civilization cannot be defined by only its organization, its culture or technology, but by the quality of its people. The proper aim to pursue is balanced psychological development. All other things will then follow naturally.

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The Western World looks to ancient Greece and Rome as the cradle of its civilization. This is only partly true. It also owes much to the Religious tradition, Hebrew, Christian as well as Islam. The Greeks also derived their civilization from the Egyptians, Persians and Indians, and the Romans learnt much from the Greeks. It is true, however, that they gave it a colour of their own and added to it. The mind having been conditioned by this tradition, it has seldom been realized that the influences they received from the Greco-roman source were not as beneficial as they suppose, but also had a corrupting affect. Both were slave-based societies, where human dignity had low value. This inevitably affected their achievements. It created a class structure which caused certain psychological distortions. Natural compassion and fellow-feeling had to be suppressed and rationalized away in order to maintain class distinction. The emotions act as a relating or reconciling factor between the intellect and action. But when these were suppressed or perverted then a separation occurred between the faculties for physical labour, motivation and thought. The psyche disintegrated. Manual work was left to the slaves and had to be carried out without thought and knowledge, looked down upon by the upper class, while intellectual activity became theoretical and unpractical. Motivation was directed to to maintain the class structure, to separate, dominate, administer and organize rather than to unite.

The tendency to dominate created its own opposite, servility on the one hand and arrogance and rebelliousness on the other. All kinds of dichotomy are connected with this. There is the master and slave, mind and matter, the psychological and the physical, idealism and materialism, the Spiritual and the Material, the Religious and the Secular, the Public and the Private, knowledge and action, values and facts, them and us, work and pleasure, producers and consumers and so on. These dichotomies not only affect feeling and actions but also thinking. Western Logic is based on it. Something is either this or that, black or white. The many gradations of grey are ignored. The Debate is a fundamental institution which requires taking one side or the other. It prevents the intelligent and impartial assessment of a situation. It becomes necessary to support one side and attack the other, irrespective of the truth. All these dichotomies are incompatible with the notion of Unity in Islam.

The Greeks are known for their Sport, Art and Philosophy. Sport consists of physical activity without any practical purpose beyond entertainment. It is the indulgence of those with leisure and unused physical energy. Their Art is equally purposeless and shows flights of un-applied and un-directed emotions, often of a perverted kind. The real purpose of Art, as in the case of that produced by religious sources, is an educational one, to facilitate higher awareness. Their Philosophy consist mainly of abstraction, speculation and intellectual games. This has coloured the whole outlook on life. Social, political, intellectual and business life have become a matter of rivalry and frivolity.

Games and sport do have a function in children to prepare their physical, intellectual and emotional faculties for serious application in later life. And we may regard the Greeks as the childhood of civilization. But games in the West seldom have this purpose. They are mainly entertainment for spectators and a means for political distraction to make people more manageable and exploitable by the holders of power. The overall effect is to destroy the serious purpose of life by making the means into the ends. The need for Games and entertainment arose as the other side of the dichotomy, work, became labour because it was made irksome by separating it from satisfaction.

The Romans are known for their Organization, Administration and Law. The main feature of these is their formality, abstractness and mechanicalness, the complete absence of humanity. Rigid rules rather than flexible intelligence is applied. The intellect is operating independently in the field of human relationships where the feelings are more important. They were designed to keep people under control and not for human welfare.

The Romans and Greeks are also known for their cruelty, orgies, the perversion and undisciplined indulgence of appetites. None of these can be regarded as virtues. Self-discipline, morality, inspiring and educational art, true learning, the need for objective truth rather than mere opinion, conscientiousness in work, purposefulness, charity, these come wholly through the religious traditions. The Greek and Roman conquerors who murdered, pillaged, enslaved and destroyed vast territories are also much admired. So thoroughly conditioned has the Western mind become by the Greco-Roman culture that not only do they not realize the psychological perversities introduced by them, but they even regard many of their vices as virtues.

It is true, of course, that slavery existed also in Muslim countries, but not because of Islam. Islam required that slaves should be treated more like members of the family and should be freed. Many an ex-slave attained position of respect and power in the Muslim community.

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