With the edict of Milan in 313, Christianity became a tolerated religion within the Roman Empire. It would not take long for the faith to become both the empire's official and most popular religion. By 1000 A.D., social customs and practices had been influenced by Christian thought, theology, and piety for many centuries. From Madrid to Moscow, and from London to Constantinople, Medieval Europeans saw themselves as followers of Christ, and their civilization as essentially Christian. Just as the Church affected society, however, so did society affect the Church. By the eleventh century, lords had effectively wrested control of local churches and their lands from bishops. Often times Christianity was used to justify practices and behavior that ran counter to the teachings of the Church. Was Medieval society truly Christian, or was Christianity merely a superficial cover over a society that used religion for its own ends? The crux of the issue revolves around the question of whether the Church did more to transform European society than society did in transforming the Church.

What is a "Christian Society?"

In order to determine whether Medieval Europe was a Christian society, one must first define what a Christian society would look like. In the Medieval mind, both the Universe and society were static and unchangeable. The goal of each person was not to "rise up the social ladder," but rather to find their proper place within society. "A carpenter ought not try to become a knight; on the other hand, no one ought to deprive him of his proper place as a carpenter."[1] In modern times, however, with our emphasis upon evolution and the constant process and change of all things, society is seen not as a static entity, but rather as a construction that is in a continual state of change and process. Therefore, it would be incorrect to say that Medieval society was entirely Christian or entirely non-Christian. At best, Medieval European society was in a state of Christianization, and at worst, in a state of de-Christianization. Modern society, likewise, might best be described not as non-Christian, as some church leaders would have us believe, but rather as being in a state of de-Christianization.

With this view of a constantly changing society, the modern historian is freed from having to look at Medieval society in such absolute terms as "Christian" or "non-Christian." It also frees us from having to look at Medieval society in completely idealistic terms. Certainly, an ideal Christian society would have the precepts of the Gospel as its central focus. The Church would be at the center of a community where all goods are held in common[2], there would be no war, and equality would be essential.[3] The modern Christian no doubt can look back upon the Medieval period, with a Roman Catholic Church apparently dominated by a thoroughly superstitious and corrupting spirit, and secular authorities using the Church to advance their own selfish ends, and say that Medieval society was not truly Christian. Certainly, no one is advocating that Medieval society was a perfect society, and so it would be just as absurd to suggest that Medieval Europe should have, or could have, been a perfect Christian society. The Apostolic Christian community of the first century may have been a better representation of a truly Christian society than Medieval Europe, but that does not make Medieval Europe any less Christian.

One might perhaps better understand what characteristics make up a Christian society by looking at what makes Christians "Christian" themselves. The criteria for determining one's status as a Christian certainly has differed over time, and varies quite a bit from place to place, and from group to group. One might also add that Christianity itself is in a constant state of change. The "religion" of Christ did not spring up in the first century completely formed and developed. In fact, the Christian of today would no doubt find the beliefs and practices of first century Christianity to be quite different from his or her own. It is true that the doctrines of Christianity have changed over time, but doctrines do not in and of themselves constitute what is truly "Christian." Heresy in the later part of the Middle Ages challenged the very idea of what Christians ought to believe, but even these groups should be considered Christian heresies, and not non-Christian groups. "Christianity" therefore must be something greater than a particular Christian group such as the Cathars, the Baptists, or the Roman Catholics. These groups are merely expressions of what is truly Christian, and thus might best be described as manifestations of Christianity.

Ultimately, then, a very basic and fundamental definition for what a Christian and a Christian society is, is needed in order to encompass all of the manifestations of each term. Webster defines a Christian as a person who believes that Jesus is the Christ, or the Messiah. But even this extremely basic definition is inadequate. A Muslim believes that Jesus is the Messiah (although differently from a Christian), and a Muslim is obviously not a Christian. Perhaps a more appropriate definition for a Christian is anyone who considers themselves to be a Christian. Understandably, a definition so broad is unattractive because it could lead any group -- irregardless of what they believe -- who considers themselves to be Christian, to be considered a Christian group. Ultimately, however, this definition is appropriate in that it is broad enough to include all groups of Christians, from Cathars and Catholics, to Baptists and Mormons. Logically, then, a Christian society might best be defined as any society that considers itself to be Christian.

Viewing themselves

Thus, the question that needs to be asked is: did Medieval Europeans consider themselves to be Christians? The evidence is certainly overwhelmingly in the positive. When Bede wrote his History of the English Church and People in the early part of the eighth century, he saw Christianity as the central and unifying force behind English society. Much of Medieval Europe would, in the centuries after Bede, take up his idea of a society unified by Christianity, and apply it to themselves. Christianity then, was not only the religion of most Europeans, but in legal terms, it was also the official religion of Europe.

In a very important sense, the assumptions of a society are just as important in determining its nature as the actual political and religious events and institutions that characterize that society. During the Medieval age, Christianity was considered the normative religion of Europe, and for the average lay person, any other religious belief would be practically inconceivable. The Church was present in the lives of the people from the moment they entered this life to the moment they exited, marking each special occasion with a rite or sacrament.: baptism at birth, Confirmation at the age of reason, marriage as one entered into adulthood, and Extreme Unction upon death. Confession and Communion were also present throughout the life of the believer, and as always, the Holy Orders for those who felt so called by God. The belief in God, and specifically God as seen through the lense of Christianity, permeated every aspect of European society, and characterized its every facet. But even in more specific examples, Medieval Europe manifested itself as a Christian society.

Institutions

First of all, Medieval governments legitimized their rule by appealing to divine sanction. In the minds of both the rulers of society and the people, it was the Christian God that permitted and liscenced the authority of kings and lesser royal officials over the people. Constantine, the Roman Emporer who legalized Christianity in the fourth century, was the prime example of the good ruler for the Medieval time period. In a miraculous vision, Constantine had been chosen by God to take control of the Roman government, and had transformed the pagan empire into a society where Christianity was the official religion and a guiding force. Constantine, perhaps the creator of the first "Christian society," was at the same time both the ideal ruler, and the ideal "Christian" ruler. The model of rule for the Medieval period would thus be based upon a leader who advanced not only the power of secular government, but advanced the influence of the church as well. Under the rule of Charlemagne in the ninth century, Church and State were further wedded, and thus Charlemagne would also be a role model for later Medieval rulers. Both rulers looked to use Christianity as a unifying force amidst a diverse empire, and thus Medieval society inherited at least the understanding that Christianity was, if no the only, then at lest the best way to keep society unified.

Along with the right to rule, also comes the need for justice. It is an essential idea in any society, and justice was seen by Medieval society as both being provided, and guaranteed, by divine guidance. Justice was provided in the case of the ordeal. Whether as a test of fire, or as a test of water, Medieval Europeans believed that when suspected criminals were put through an ordeal, God would intercede on the behalf of the innocent, and would let the guilty suffer their due punishment. It certainly would take a strong belief in God, and a strong belief in Christianity, to promote and allow such a practice to continue. Justice was at the same time guaranteed when human law coincided with divine law. In the Medieval mind, secular law (Jus naturale ) was based upon divine law (Jus divinium ), and when human law reflected the will of God, then society had liberty (libertas ). Certainly this ideal was rarely, if ever, achieved in Medieval Europe, but just as Americans today strive towards the equality represented in the United States Constitution, so did Medieval Europeans, as a Christian society, attempt to move towards the ideal of a divinely approved societal structure.

With liberty and justice also comes the idea of health and healing. In this regard too, the church and God played a vital role. Relics specifically played an important role, not only as sacred objects and therefore objects that allowed people to touch the divine," but they were also instrumental in the healing process.[4] They were perhaps the most useful instruments for doctors and healers of this time, and considering some of the crudity of Medieval medicine, perhaps even one of the safest means of treatment for the patients. Relics could be bones of saints or martyrs, pieces of the true cross, or other such important Christian artifacts. Basing their logic on a passage from Scripture where a woman touched the cloak of Jesus and was healed, relics were thought to be vehicles through which God was able to heal believers.[5] Cathedrals and local churches thrived off of the pilgrims that would come to their churches in mass to visit these relics. During the Crusades, imitation relics were created in large numbers by the inhabitants of the Holy land and parts of Europe to be sold to unsuspecting crusaders.

Christianized Paganism?

Each of the characteristics mentioned above do not necessarily in and of themselves demonstrate that Medieval Europe was a Christian society. The idea that rulers have authority by divine right, or that healing and justice come through supernatural means, are not exclusively Christian ideas. Certainly, these same ideas were used when Europe was a pagan society, and indeed, these practices were only different during the Medieval period in that they had been Christianized," and were being expressed in uniquely Christian terms. One can look at this development in two different ways: either Christianity, after being mixed with pagan ideas, became the new facade over an already existing system, or that these changes were in and of themselves proof that Christianity was influencing society.

Far too often, modern Christians and historians have look back upon the infusion of pagan and Christian concepts in European society, and have said that Christianity and the church were corrupted by a still pagan influenced Europe. This approach, however, forces Christianity out of its historical context, and changes it into an inaccessible ideal. It turns Christianity into a concept and not a reality. Christianity itself did not develop in an isolated box separate from a culture, and indeed, everything -- whether it be religion, music, art, or philosophy -- is influenced by the culture that surrounds it. The Christian community emerged within the Roman Empire, and was effected by Roman religion, philosophy, ethics, and understanding. This is not to say that there is nothing unique about Christianity, but any society that undergoes a conversion from paganism to Christianity invariably produces some mingling of pagan and Christian ideas. As has been stated above, all societies are in a state of process, and therefore the Christianization" of Medieval European society shows that Medieval society did indeed attempt to move towards an ideal Christian society. American's consider their government to be a democracy, knowing full well that this is only an ideal. Striving for the ideal, however, in itself demonstrates a connection with the idea being sought after. Medieval Europe then, because it strove for the ideal of a Christian society, should be considered a Christian society.

However, it would be something of a utopian ideal in itself to say that both Christianity and the Church, no matter how much each is affected or influenced by non-Christian sources, still remains just as Christian throughout time. Certainly there must be room to speak of heresy (i.e., a falling away from the true faith). The question that needs to be asked is: How far from the true faith can the Church and Medieval Christianity fall before they no longer remain Christian?" Or to put it another way: How far must European society fall from the Christian ideal before it can no longer be considered a Christian society? At a structural level, and at a moral and ethical level, the Church and society had indeed fallen short of the ideal of Christianity.

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Societas Christians, Footnotes

note: All Bible verses taken from the NRSV.

1. Jeffrey Burton Russell, A History of Medieval Christianity: Prophecy and Order (Arlington Heights, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc., 1968), 78.

2. Cf. Acts 4:32.

3. Cf. Galatians 3:28.

4.Jean Comby, How to Read Church History (New York: Crossroad, 1993), 149.

5. Matthew 9:20-22.