The military prowess of Vespasian and Titus was beyond dispute but Domitian was untested in war before he became emperor. He was anxious to acquire a military reputation, as Suetonius relates (Dom. 2), by planing an unnecessary expedition. However, an active military role was a necessity for an emperor. Claudius’ British campaign was as unnecessary as Domitian’s German expedition but it served to unite the army with their emperor and provided valuable propaganda. Claudius could style himself as the conqueror of the Britons and Domitian added Germanicus to his name.

As emperor, when war was imminent, Domitian summoned his military advisors to the Alban villa for consultation. The actual setting of policy belonged to the emperor. Julius Ursus, a relative and praetorian prefect, was "promoted" to the Senate after he disagreed with the Domitian’s policy in Germany (Dio 67.4.2). As a military leader, Dio suggests that Domitian spent his time during campaigns indulging in riotous living in a city far from the action (67.6). However, Frontinus has Domitian ordering his troops to dismount and fight on foot because of difficult terrain (Stratagems. 2.3) and that he paid compensation to civilians for damage caused by his army (Stratagems 2.11).

Chattian War 82 - 83

Domitian’s reputation-building military expedition was against the Chatti. The exact time for the start of the war is uncertain but it is likely Domitian had begun his attack before September 82.[1] The emperor had gone to Gaul pretending to conduct a census. Without warning, Roman troops crossed into Chattian territory building military roads and fortifications to keep the Germans in check (Stratagems 1.1.8). Domitian’s headquarters were located at Mainz, where XIV Gemina and XXI Rapax were stationed. He stayed at the front for some time, as evidenced by the grave of his official taster. The operation was successful in strengthening frontier defenses but the Chatti were not conquered. This did not deter Domitian from celebrating a triumph in 83 and claiming the name "Germanicus." Following this action, the grateful Domitian increased the soldiers’ pay by one-third, paid a congiarium and may have paid a donative.[2]

Germania Capta Denarius of Domitian

Beginning in 85, and continuing for the remainder of the reign, an extensive issue of coins commemorated the victory. Issued in gold and silver, one reverse type proclaimed the victory by depicting a German woman, stripped to the waist, seated on a shield with a broken spear below (RIC-66a and 72ff.). But the greatest variety of issues were given to bronze coins. One type, inscribed "GERMANIA CAPTA," was modeled after Vespasian's "IUDEA CAPTA" series, depicting seated female and standing male captives with a trophy between them (RIC-252). Domitian himself appears on several types. He is variously depicted, dressed as a soldier, standing, holding a spear with a kneeling captive (RIC-258), standing with a personification of the Rhine reclining at his feet (RIC-259), galloping on horseback spearing a fallen German (RIC-257) and standing holding a spear with a knelling captive (RIC-258). Other coinage types gave thanks to Jupiter (RIC-253) and another depicts a Victory holds a shield inscribed "DE GERM" (RIC-255). Tacitus remained dubious about the German victory and referred to it as a sham triumph (Agr. 39).

Domitian riding down a fallen German

Vespasian sought to stabilize the frontiers of the empire during his reign rather than expand them, but Britain was the single exception. In 71, Vespasian sent Q. Petilius Cerialis with a new legion, II Adiutrix, to push the frontier northward. However, it was not until Cn. Julius Agricola became governor in 78 that the complete subjugation of Britain became reality. By 81, Agricola had advanced into southwestern Scotland and even gave thought to invading Ireland (Agr. 24).

On becoming emperor, Domitian allowed Agricola to remain in office even though he was already two years longer on campaign than usual for a consular appointment. Presumably, the emperor was allowing the governor to stay to complete the conquest of the island. In 83, the Romans won a pitched battle against the Caleconians at Mons Graupius. The victorious army secured the frontier by building fortifications at Chester, Caerleon and Inchtuthil. In preparation for his eighth year on campaign, Agricola sent his fleet to explore the Orkney Islands, proving that Britain was an island.

Sestertius showing Domitian greeting a group of soldiers

In 84, however, Domitian, who has been accused of being jealous of his governor’s success (Agr. 42), recalled Agricola. Domitian was celebrating his German triumph when news of the victory at Mons Graupius arrived in Rome.[3] Whether the emperor was justified in seeing his general as a threat, little would be gained by subduing the remainder of Britain. There were no natural resources to make further conquest profitable, the lowland settlements had been secured against incursions and Agricola had long overstayed his appointment. Appian commented that the Romans had taken possession of the better part of Britain and even this part was not very profitable (Praef. 5). The governor returned to Rome and was granted triumphal ornaments. A sestertius was struck from 85 until 87 (RIC-260, 288 & 306) and was thought to represent Domitian greeting Agricola, but as the type was issued with the "Germania Capta" series it is likely Agricola is not intended. Nor does Tacitus mention the honor among those of his father-in-law (Agr. 40). Domitian saw fit to grant Agricola no further commands, which has fueled the accusation that he did not trust his general.

Just two years after Agricola departed from Britain, in 86/87, a massive withdrawal, accomplished over a long period, was carried out abandoning the recent gains. Fortresses, such as Inchtuthil, were carefully dismantled to leave nothing of value for the enemy. Coins, sent in bulk to pay the troops, found at Inchtuthil date to 86, thereby fixing a date for troop movements. Legio II Adiutrix was transferred to the Danube and what troops remained were moved further south (Trajan would later move them further south). The immediate reason for abandoning Scotland is the defeat of Cornelius Fruscus by the Dacians making it necessary to transfer troops to the zone of highest danger. There is also the possibility that garrison troops had become stretched to the limit and so had to be regrouped to ensure the safety of the British lowlands.[4]

Whatever the reason, the retreat caused discontent. Tacitus bitterly complained that Britain had been conquered and immediately let go (Hist. 1.2). Discontent may have led to disloyal acts and caused the execution of the governor of Britain, Sallustus Lucullus. The charge Suetonius provides, that he named a type of lance after himself (Dom. 10), may mask a more serious, treasonable action.

The Danube and the Dacian War

For Domitian, the most challenging area of the empire was the Danube where he had to face the Sarmatians, the Suebic Germans (Marcomanni and Quadi) and the Dacians. The area had long been subjected to raids by these highly mobile tribes. During the civil war of 69, the Sarmatians took advantage of the turmoil to attack. Mucianus, on his march to Rome, felt it necessary to dispatch VI Ferrata to halt the tribesmen. In 70, the Sarmatians attacked and killed Fonteius Agrippa, the governor of Moesia. In response, Vespasian had strengthened the Danubian defenses, however, he had not increased the number of soldiers.[5] Domitian continued his father's policy but events overtook imperial policy. In the summer of 85, the Dacian's crossed the Danube and attacked, killing the governor of Moesia, Oppius Sabinus (who had met the Dacians in battle leading V Macedonica and I Italica) and caused considerable destruction.[6] Forcing the Dacian's back across the Danube was made more difficult by the emergence of a new Dacian leader: Decebalus. Domitian left Rome, along with Cornelius Fuscus, to personally take command and refused to accept peace proposals from the Dacians (Dom. 6). The Romans had some success that allowed Domitian claim two imperial salutations (IMP X and IMP XI in September and October 85 when he also became censor for life) and to return to Rome and celebrate a second triumph early in 86.

Later in 86, Cornelius Fuscus rashly crossed the Danube and invaded Dacia and was killed, perhaps with the loss of a legion (Agr. 41). Once more, Domitian took personal command (Dom. 6) and sent two generals, Cornelius Nigrinus and L. Funisulanus Vettonianus, against the Dacians. To better administer the province, Moesia was divided in two, creating an Upper and Lower Moesia. The situation in Dacia stabilized, and Domitian ordered additional troops into the area (perhaps precipitating the withdrawal from Scotland). After a year of inactivity, the war resumed with an invasion by Tettius Julianus, known as a stern disciplinarian (Dio 67.10.1). He defeated the Dacians at Tapae, near the Dacian capital in 88. Domitian received two more salutations in September and October, raising his total to 17. The victory was followed up by the annexation of Dacian territory and preparations were probably being made to continue the war next year.

Saturninus' Rebellion

At this critical point, on January 1, 89, L. Antoninus Saturninus, the governor of Upper Germany, rebelled against Domitian. Involved were the XIV Gemina and XXI Rapax, both legions stationed in Mainz, the revolt being financed with the money soldiers were allowed to deposit in camp. Saturninus had reached an understanding with the nearby Chatti in order to prevent their attacks during the revolt. However, the Germans took advantage of the situation and destroyed many of the fortifications built in 82. The reasons for the rebellion are obscure and was it probably a conspiracy among the officers rather than the soldiers, who had recently had their privileges and immunities confirmed.

Domitian found himself facing a military revolt, a critical war in Dacia and the appearance of the false Nero in Parthia. The revolt was put down quickly by Aulus Buccus Lappius, the commander of Lower Germany (who suspiciously destroyed Saturninus’ papers) and was over before Domitian arrived from Rome with his praetorians and Trajan arrived from Spain with VII Gemina. Saturninus probably expected help from his other legions stationed at Strasbourg (VIII Augusta) and Windish (XI Claudia); but they did not come. The Chatti were unable to aid Saturninus because an early thaw prevented them from crossing the frozen Rhine river. Also unfortunate for the rebels was that I Minerva, Domitian's own legion, was stationed in Bonn. The revolt occurred on the twentieth anniversary of Vitellius's proclamation as emperor, which had also been announced at Mainz. However, Saturninus was not comparable with Vitellius and had been admitted to senatorial rank by Vespasian, holding a consulship early in Domitian's reign, and was described as a notorious and untrustworthy pervert (Dio 67.11.4).

This was a military revolt unsupported by the Senate and was not followed by mass executions of senators. However, this probably gave Domitian little comfort since and senatorial involvement could have been successfully covered up. It is difficult to imagine a conspiracy that did not have the support of some group in Rome. However, in his Panegyricus, Pliny praises Trajan for coming to Domitian's aid to suppress the revolt (Pan. 14) and says nothing further. Pliny would not have failed to mention the execution of senators had they occurred. That Domitian became more suspicious is perhaps indicated by an unusually high number of consulships in 90, as if he were reluctant to have two men hold office for very long, and he was probably more willing to listen to informers. Following the revolt, the two Mainz legions were transferred further east and the city became a one-legion camp (Dom. 7). Restrictions were imposed on the amount of money soldiers could deposit in camp. Before leaving Mainz Domitian dealt with the Chatti and a peace treaty was signed.

First Pannonian War and Conclusion of the Dacian War

In the summer of 89, Domitian advanced against the Quadi and Marcomanni, who had refused to support the Romans against the Dacians. There may have been an alliance negotiated that was violated by the tribes. Dio says that two embassies were sent to the emperor by the tribes to negotiate peace; the second group were executed (Dio 67.7.1). This drastic step would only have been committed if a treaty had already been negotiated with the Dacians. Dio further suggests that Domitian invaded and was defeated by the Marcomanni. In other words, the emperor was too headstrong and contrary to good sense went ahead with an attack that failed. Such malignant comments run contrary to the deliberation that characterized Domitian.

Negotiations were also going on with the Dacians that resulted in a treaty making Decebalus a vassal of Rome. The Dacians were allowed to keep their territory intact and receive a subsidy. Martial recorded (Mart. 5.3) that Diegis, a member of the Dacian royal family, came to Rome to accept a golden diadem from Domitian's hands, Decebalus being no fool to come himself. It is more probable that Diegis met Domitian on the Danube where he remained for sometime following the suppression of Saturnitus’ rebellion. The terms of the treaty were similar to those offered by Nero to Tiridates over Armenia. As with the withdrawal in Britain, Domitian must have been criticized for coming to terms instead of completing the conquest of Dacia, and worse, Decebalus remained unpunished. However, the Danube was a highly volatile area where the Romans could expect fighting on more than one front. Peace was a necessity. Domitian fortified the Danubian frontier and returned to Rome in late 89 to celebrate a double triumph over the Chatti and Dacians that included lavish games (Dom. 6). Details on the war are few but Domitian received his 20^th salutation and the Senate voted him the famous equestrian statue.

Second Pannonian War 92

The second Pannonian war grew out of the efforts of Domitian to diplomatically isolate the Danubian tribes. He had supplied 100 cavalry to the Lugii who were at war with the Suebi. The Suebi joined with the Iazges and invaded Roman territory, destroying a legion (thought to have been XXI Rapax). Domitian traveled to Pannonia in May 92 and was absent for 8 months (Mart. 9.31.3; Dio 67.5.2). Thanks to Domitian’s settlement with Decebalus the Romans were able to cross Dacia in order to attack the Sarmatian rear.

The damage was repaired and Domitian to return to Rome in January 93 to celebrate an ovation, not a triumph, as he was apparently not satisfied with the military situation. Suetonius and Silius Italicus say he dedicated a laurel wreath to Jupiter, which was part of a triumphal celebration (Dom 6; Punica 120). Martial thought of this as a private triumph (8.15.5-6) and Statius credits the emperor’s clemency as the reason for his modesty (Silvae 3.3.171), only later changing his mind and urging Domitian to accept a triumph (4.1.39). Domitian received his 22^nd salutation during this war and the people were paid a third congiarium.

There are indications that preparations for war, if not war itself, was taking place on the Danube at the end of Domitian’s reign. Military diplomas indicate that forces in Upper Moesia and Pannonia were increased, and there were several more auxiliary units present than in the war of 92 (CIL 16.39, 46). Although this evidence if an increase of troops has been explained away as the later preparations for Trajan’s invasion of Dacia, most of the troops were there in July 96.[7] Dio Chrysostom reported a significant concentration of forces in Upper Moesia in September 96 (12.16.20). Numismatic evidence of a new coinage type of Minerva Victrix suggests at least hopes for a victory.[8] This was a conflict Nerva inherited and when a victory occurred in October, 97 he adopted the name "Germanicus." The war was eventually concluded by Trajan.

1 Jones,ibid,pp. ;Southern, Pat, Domitian:Tragic Tyrant,(Indiana University Press, 1997), pp. 79-83.

2 Jones,ibid.,p.131.

3 Southern, Pat, ibid, p.72.

4 Petts,Lynn F.,St. Joseph, J.K.,Inchtuthil,(Britannia Monograph Series #6),1985,p.279.

5 Jones,op. cit.,p.137.

6 The precise date of the start of the Dacian war is uncertain and may have been from the winter of 84/85 to the winter of 85/86. Domitian received two imperial salutations between September 85 and February 86 which appear to indicate the military activity that went on prior to Domitian’s return to Rome to celebrate a triumph.

7 Jones,op. cit.,p. 153.

8 See, Casey, James b., "Minerva Victrix: Domitian’s final war, A.D. 96", The Celator, April 1996.