In the span of four short days during the summer of 1914, the entire world held its collective breath while everything that Europe knew about itself came crashing down. The Great War was beginning. It was a war that no one really wanted, and yet no one could stop from happening. Over the next four years, millions of men would give the ultimate sacrifice for ideas that many never really understood. In the end, the horrors of a new type of warfare, that of the trench system, unthinkable only a generation earlier, would permanently ingrain themselves on a collective consciousness. Ironically, the war never had to happen, at least not on the scope that it came to be. Any one of the major powers could have backed out before it ever started. Some hesitated, but in the end, the web of alliances which had been forged over the years leading up to the struggle was simply too much for anyone to overcome. They simply took a life of their own, and dragged nations down with them.

For almost a century after the fall of Napoleon in 1815, Europe had been largely peaceful. There were a few local exceptions, such as the Franco - Prussian war, the revolutions of 1848, and the systematic dismantling of the outer reaches of the Ottoman Empire, but, on the whole, it was a century of relative serenity. Behind this complacency, however, the winds of change were blowing. They came from a new source, one where they hadn't been seen in a long time. Central Europe was growing up. During the 1860s and 1870s, the emergence of two new powers was to shake the very foundations of Europe forever.

In 1871, after over one thousand years of political bickering and jostling, the Germanic states finally unified behind one flag. Led by the will of Prussia's "Iron Chancellor", Otto Von Bismarck, the German Reich accomplished in a less than a decade what had taken the rest of the major European powers hundreds of years: world notice. It was the fastest rise of a true world power in modern history. In southern Europe, Italy unified during the same period. While not the economic or militaristic power of the new Germany, the Italians still held an important position in the balance of power. That balance was precarious and constantly shifting. The alliance system grew out of the need for nations to preserve the balance. It can be looked at in two distinct periods: during and after Bismarck.

According to Dr. Henry Kissinger, the unification of Germany created a dilemma.

… the powers at the edge of Europe - Great Britain, France, and Russia - had been exerting pressure on the center. Now for the first time, the center of Europe was becoming sufficiently powerful to press on the periphery.

Bismarck realized this shift, and its consequences. Almost immediately, he set about creating a system of alliances. They were designed primarily to prevent war and maintain the status quo. In the process, they would also isolate France, which since the humiliation of the Franco - Prussian war, had been bent on revenge. In order to ensure that any balance would be in Germany's favor, Bismarck had to ally with at least two of the four other great powers of Europe. Obviously, France was out of the question. Great Britain and Russia held promise, perhaps to be courted at a later time. Austria - Hungary was the most logical choice. Although German unification had partially come at her expense, the empire had a large contingent of Germanic people. She had long been a European power. The problem was that the Austrians and Russians didn't get along too well. Bismarck, though, believed in himself. Improbable as it seemed to many at the time, he was able to bring the two camps into an alliance in 1873 called the Three Emperors League. It emphasized their commonality and conservative views. The challenge of how to deal with two partners who were at each other's throats was too much, however, and the league was not renewed. Bismarck then focused on Austria alone.

In 1879, Germany and Austria signed a treaty which produced the "Dual Alliance". Its principal provision obligated either country to come to the aid of the other if attacked by Russia. Bismarck saw it as a purely defensive move, but the Austrians regarded it as giving them a free hand Europe's political hot spot: the Balkans. This area would come to dominate European interests for the next forty years.

Originally part of the Ottoman Empire, the Balkan states had either declared independence, come under the manipulation of, or been directly annexed by other empires during the nineteenth century. All of the major European powers had, or came to have, strong interests in the area. If Turkey, "the sick man of Europe" had been strong enough to repel these advances, perhaps the alliance system would have been useless, and the Great War may never have started. The Ottomans, however, were in the last days of greatness. Internal strife, coupled with outside forces, was in the process of bringing the once lofty empire to its knees. Two powers had particular interests in the region. Austria -- Hungary, with its cultural ties to the near east, stood opposed to Russia, who saw herself as the protector of the Slavic people who inhabited the area. During the Russian campaign of 1877 in the Balkans, Dostoyevsky wrote,

Ask the people; ask the soldier; why are they arising? Why are they going to war and what do they expect from it? They will tell you, as one man, that they are going to serve Christ and to liberate the oppressed brethren … We shall watch over their mutual harmony and protect their liberty and independence, be it even against all Europe.

According to M. N. Katlov, the Russian Tsar was, "… more than the heir of his ancestors; he is the successor of the Ceasars of Eastern Rome … with the fall of Byzantium, Moscow arose and the greatness of Russia began." Russia also saw the opportunity to achieve its objective of having control of a warm water port as a reason to stand her ground.

After the existence of the Dual Alliance became known, Russia turned to Germany for some assurances. Bismarck knew too well that he was caught in a squeeze. Germany was situated between Russia and France. As R. W. Seton - Watson puts it,Bismarck needed at all cost to prevent a Franco - Russian alliance such as might force Germany to fight on two fronts, at all costs to avert any situation in which it might be necessary for Germany to choose between Russia and Austria - Hungary, since a contest between these two powers might result in a war … as would be excessively dangerous to Germany.

Bismarck proposed a revival of the Three Emperors League. His thinking was that he could diffuse the potential problems in the Balkans through alliance rather than through confrontation. The tsar was receptive due to what he perceived as the prospect of isolation for Russia if he didn't accept. In 1881, Germany, Austria and Russia pledged to remain neutral in the event that one of them were engaged in a war with a fourth nation. Bismarck's brilliance had, once again protected Germany from the possibility of a Franco - Russian alliance against her, which would have precipitated a two - front war. In the process, he had diffused the crisis in Europe's "powderkeg".

In 1882, Bismarck reached out towards another thorn in Austria's side. Italy joined the Dual Alliance to create the Triple Alliance. Austria - Hungary was now assured that if the Three Emperors League fell again and relations with Russia once again became strained, the Italians would not box them in from the south. Italy was given the opportunity to participate in great power diplomacy for the first time, giving its government legitimacy both at home and abroad.

In the end, however, the great balancing act was too much to handle, even for Bismarck. Tensions in the Balkans between Austria and Russia threatened to flare up at any time. Alexander III, who assumed the throne in Russia in 1881, distrusted Bismarck. He felt that Germany's ties were too strong to Austria. In any conflict between her and Russia, Alexander was convinced that Germany would stand by the Austrians. A crisis in Bulgaria brought the tensions to the breaking point. A new kingdom was created under a German prince, who Bismarck immediately supported. It looked like Germany was moving in on what had been, at least in her eyes, Russian dominated territory. Two years later, Russia decided not to renew the Three Emperors League. She did, however, sign a "Reinsurance Treaty" with Germany. It kept Germany and Russia neutral in each other's affairs, unless Germany attacked France or Russia attacked Austria - Hungary. Although shallow on the surface, the treaty kept the lines of communication open between Berlin and St. Petersburg. Bismarck was convinced that he had once again saved the day. It was to be one of his last major achievements.

William II came to the throne of Germany in 1890. He was determined that he, not Bismarck, would call the shots. On March 18, he dismissed the "Iron Chancellor". Five days later the government decided not to renew the Reinsurance treaty. It was a decision which sealed Germany's fate. Bismarck's fears of a Franco - Prussian alliance were about to become reality.

France had long stood by and watched in horror as her former ally was wooed by Bismarck into alliances and treaties. Once Germany committed to Austria, however, she saw her opportunity. Russia realized that Germany would now stand in her way of domination in the Balkans, and she needed France to help her combat any German threat. France realized, rather painfully, that she was no match for Germany alone. In 1894, a military convention was signed. It pledged Russia and France to mutual support if one or the other was attacked by Germany (or Austria with Germany's help). The Franco - Russian alliance and the Triple Alliance had taken care of four of the five great European powers, plus Italy. Only Great Britain stood alone. Under Bismarck's theories, she would carry the difference. The English, of course, knew this as well. After nearly a century of isolation, however, England was not ready quite yet to choose a side.

British concerns stretched around the globe, from the European continent to the Middle East to India and China. She had the largest empire, and the largest navy to back it up. As the dominant independent power, she crossed paths with everyone. In the Middle East, she went up against Russia and Turkey. In Africa, She battled France, sometimes to the very brink of war, as in the case of Egypt. Germany had her eye on the Far East and central Africa. As long as the alliance system was at a standstill, and she remained out of it, England was assured that her navy could keep the other powers in check.

Germany offered the most hope for friendship, but the most danger as well. The rapid growth of the German economy and its expansion into overseas markets adversely affected British economic interests. This directly led to a German naval buildup, as it was needed to protect her interests in shipping. The Germans developed a policy which built her navy up to be the second largest, behind Britain. Some Brits even called for an Anglo - German alliance, especially with regards to England's long standing advisory: Russia. Instead of Germany, however, the British found another partner with which to break the isolation, one which had no cause to ruffle the feathers of the other Great Powers of Europe. The sun was rising in the east. In 1902, Britain forged an alliance with Japan.

Europe was stunned. In retrospect, however, it made perfect sense. The treaty called for mutual intervention only in the case of an attack on either one of the two nations by two advisaries. Britain thus assured itself of a way to contain Russia without having to attack it herself. Japan stepped onto the world stage in a big way. Three years later she proved that the Russians were no match for her new westernized fighting force. The Anglo - Japanese Alliance also insured that Japan could fight Russia without interference from France, which feared a potential war with England if she acted. The British knew, however, that their differences with France would have to be settled. To do that, she would have to deal with Russia as well.

In 1903, France and England began a series of systematic discussions of their colonial issues. Disputes over Africa and the Far East had been a source of tension for many years, sometimes bringing the two to the brink of war. Both were determined to put them to rest. The focal point of the conferences was the threat of Germany. Lansdowne, the British Foreign Secretary wrote,

… the most serious menace to the peace of Europe lay in Germany, that a good understanding between France and England was the only means of holding German designs in check, and that if such an understanding could be arrived at, England would find that France would be able to exercise a salutary influence over Russia, thereby relieving many of our troubles with that country.

The discussions culminated in the Entente Cordiale of 1904. It was an informal agreement at first, but it opened the door for an alliance with France. Now Britain turned to Russia.

The Russo - Japanese war in 1905 put an end to Russian ambitions in the Far East. Japan's easy victory over the Russian army also showed the Russians that she could not compete against a high - powered military without help. The English and Russians slowly worked on putting their colonial differences behind them. By 1907, relations were finally serene. It took give and take on each side. The Triple Entente came into being. With each new German challenge, its bonds grew tighter. The two camps had solidified. Everyone waited for an incident to touch off a crisis. Naturally, it came from the Balkans.

In 1908, during the "Young Turk" revolution in the Ottoman Empire, Austria - Hungary saw an opportunity to force the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina into the empire. This move brought about a series of vigorous protests from Russia and Serbia. Russia demanded an international conference to settle the issue, while Serbia appeared ready to go to war. Both sides eventually backed down, but the legacy of mistrust lingered. Four years later, the first of two Balkan wars was started. In their aftermath, Turkey had to be saved from destruction by the European powers, who couldn't decide how to split her up amongst themselves. The new Balkan states were caught in the middle of it all. Although supported by different sides in the contests, they were really out for only themselves. Serbia especially, wanted to play with the big boys. She knew that any move she made would be backed up by Russia and opposed by Austria. It was a precarious position to be in. The fuse on the powderkeg had been lit.

On June 28, 1914, it exploded. A young Bosnian revolutionary shot and killed Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria - Hungary, and his wife as they visited Sarajevo, capital of the Austrian province. Austria suspected Serbia of being behind the assassination, and decided that they had had enough. Needing to know Germany's support could be counted on, the Austrian ambassador to Berlin visited the Kaiser on July 5. The next day, William issued the following statement.

Austria must judge what is to be done to clear up her relations with Serbia; but whatever Austria's decision, she could count with certainty upon it, that Germany would stand behind her as an ally.

This fateful statement, known as the "blank check", was just what Austria wanted to hear. On July 23, an ultimatum was delivered to Serbia demanding they allow Austrian intervention, on the pretext that the Austrians needed to investigate the assassination from inside Serbian borders. They replied in a conciliatory tone, but refused to give up their independence. The British, sensing that this was the final showdown, proposed an international conference to settle the dispute. Austria would have none of it, and on July 28, declared war on Serbia. By the end of the week, all the Great Powers were involved (with the exception of Italy, which decided that it really wanted out of the Triple Alliance when it came down to it). Joining them were Serbia, Luxembourg, Montenegro, and Belgium. Before the end of August, Japan had declared war on Germany and Austria. In November, Turkey joined the Central Powers (Germany and Austria). The alliance system, which had kept Europe out of war for so long, had forced it into one. Millions of graves would be dug before it was over. Trench warfare and technological improvements such as mustard gas, the machine gun, airplanes and tanks would give new meaning to the horrors of war. In the end, the alliance system was simple too much for anyone to handle. It took on a life of its own, and nearly crushed Europe's.

Works Cited