The Fox Sisters

      In the early Christian church the gift of prophecy and spiritual communication were integral to the celebration of the new faith. These once common blessings experienced by early Christians (particularly women) have been buried through the ages by the powerful influence of liturgical authority. The hierarchy of the church was quite successful in its efforts to silence any notion of direct spiritual contact with God [1]. In the Middle Ages any faithful follower claiming such profound experiences was most likely considered to be a heretic and was often severely punished by the most vile methods including, but not limited to, immolation. While there have been brave souls throughout history who have defied the rule of the church and embraced their personal, spiritual connection, most have been long forgotten or else embraced by the church as revered and chosen by God. The children of Fatima and St. Bernadette of Lourdes are examples of the church's reluctant acceptance of divine intervention [2] . Joan of Arc's recognition did not arrive in time to save her from the flames and she was not beatified for five hundred years. Today many in society consider communing with the dead and the gift of second sight to be nothing more than parlor games. Ghosts and goblins and things that go bump in the night are spooky apparitions of campfires and all night slumber parties. However in 1848 an event in a small farmhouse in upstate New York sparked a resurgence of the old beliefs and brought about the Modern Spiritualist movement that remains to this day.
        Margaret and Katherine Fox moved with their family to Hydesville, NY in 1847. Shortly after moving into a house rumored to be haunted, the Fox family began to hear strange noises during their hours of slumber [3]. Mrs. Fox attempted to find a rational explanation for the sounds, but all attempts to discover the source of the disturbances proved fruitless. Exhausted from weeks of interrupted sleep, the family retired early on March 31, 1848 with Mrs. Fox giving strict instructions to her children "to lie still in bed and take no notice whatever of the sounds" (Farrell, 11). When the knocks became louder as if in defiance, Margaret Fox challenged the noises to copy her finger snapping [4]. Not only was the challenge answered, but when Margaret "raised her thumb and forefinger in silent gestures of communication" an appropriate answer was given in response (11). Mrs. Fox began putting forth requests and asked questions of the "invisible rapper" (12). All of her inquiries were correctly answered. Soon word of the phenomenon spread throughout the area and the Fox family was inundated with curiosity-seekers. The midnight noises must have seemed like a welcome respite in comparison. Fleeing to Rochester and the home of sister Leah Fish, the Fox family inadvertently went from the frying pan into the fire. Leah had been eking out a living as a music teacher when news of her sisters' talents inspired her with lucrative dreams [5]. When the sisters began demonstrating their unique abilities, a movement was borne.
        The strange occurrences in Hydesville are certainly fodder for speculation and skepticism, however the movement that was spawned by their inspiration can not be so easily dismissed. Whether what occurred in the presence of Katherine and Margaret Fox was real or contrived didn't matter. What mattered was the birth of a belief structure that flew in the face of the accepted church authority and challenged the social norms of the status quo. And it did the one thing that nothing in history had attempted since the early Christian church: it empowered women.
        By the middle of the nineteenth century many Christian faiths supported doctrines that reinforced an angry, omnipotent God and the better than average chance of an afterlife in Hell. Calvinism put forth the understanding that God had predestined just about everybody to "eternal suffering in Hell" (Braude, 35). Other sects, such as Congregational, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Reformed, encouraged the pursuit of "piety and righteousness in the hope of discovering themselves to be among God's elect" (36). The new dominant religion of the nineteenth century, Methodism, rejected these beliefs for the notion that everyone had "the potential to experience Christian conversion and achieve salvation" (36). Unfortunately the Methodists also believed that if the experience of conversion failed, a person was "condemned to the endless sufferings in hell" (36). During the Victorian era, a change in the religious role of women introduced an alternative to these standard religious faiths that caused many to question church authority and dogma.
        All the Christian faiths at the time supported doctrine that subjugated women to a position beneath their husbands and other men in positions of authority. But with the dawning of the industrial revolution, men were taken out of the home to work and women were left to become the moral centers of domesticity. As the 19th century progressed, the father as the "head of family religious life" was slowly replaced by the belief that women were "the moral guardians of their families" who must use their newfound purity and piety in order to obtain the salvation of their family [6] (Braude 38-39). This fundamental change in women's "spiritual obligations" generated substantial objections to accepted Christian Dogma [7] (39). Women rejected the belief that their children would be summarily condemned to eternal damnation by a god who knew their fates in advance of their births. Instead, women imparted to God the image of a caring, loving parent and not the Puritan God of wrath long associated with orthodox theology (39). Spiritualism offered an alternative to Calvinism, Methodism, or any faith that condemned loved ones to a horrific fate in the eternal bowels of hell. For women, Spiritualism became the answer to their quest for the loving relationship they sought with God when current Christian faiths failed to supply them with fulfillment.
        Spiritualism, similar to the infancy of Christianity, offered women a much more personal experience than the cold, structural formats of mainline churches. Small group meetings (séances) replaced institutional worship, mirroring the frequent use of home churches in early Christianity. Both eras found women downtrodden by patriarchal domination, but women were able to circumvent social expectations by using a place commonly understood as a woman's "proper sphere" in which to participate and lead worship services (Fiorenza, 176). Instead of lamenting their positions in life, women in the early church and those inspired to Spiritualism used what they had to supplement their own authority [8]. Other similarities are also evident. Spiritualists abhorred the idea of institutionalized religious authority because they "asserted that truth came directly to the individual without mediation by minister, Bible, or church" (Braude, 57). Women in the early church viewed the legitimacy of their leadership "on claims of prophetic experience"[9] (Kienzle/Walker, 21). Neither group needed the intervention of liturgical authority to attain a spiritual connection. While early followers of Christ based their authority on spiritual revelation and used it to preach the Word of God, women holding the Spiritualist view used their beliefs to declare their authority and they used their power to communicate an alternative view of the afterlife.
        The existence of disembodied spirits and the ability to communicate with them were the fundamental foundations for Spiritualism. It "offered concrete descriptions of the fate of lost loved ones after death" (Braude, 40). These psychic insights did not reveal deceased relatives suffering in a hellish afterlife. Rather, mediums assured those living in the earthly realm that their loved ones had crossed over to a welcoming and loving spiritual plane where they continued to mature and remained cognizant of those they left behind. These reassuring claims attracted many women seeking consolation about their dead children. Spiritualism disavowed the existence of the essential elements of damnation, i.e. sin, hell, and judgement, and in doing so replaced the "love of Jesus as the source of comfort" with "the abiding love of a dead child" (41). Instead of Jesus as Savior, Spiritualists united the goodness of humans, the beauty of nature, and God in harmony with one another (Braude, 41). Defying the very tenets of contemporary evangelicalism, Spiritualists believed people were inherently good, unencumbered by original sin, and each reflected the "image of God" (41). The necessity for salvation was no longer required. With traditional fears dissipated, this new faith blossomed into a religion based on nature as the source of truth. Followers upheld a distinct distaste for authority while recognizing the importance of individual beliefs.
        Individualism was one of the most important aspects of the religion and believers found Christian dogma directly opposed to what they wanted to convey. In Spiritualism, communication with a spirit occurred only through a human medium and the spirit(s) would only reveal "information about the divine order and the ultimate fate of the soul" to that one person (Braude, 7). This individualistic aspect forced mediums to take control of their existence while their roles perpetuated the ideal of female sovereignty (82). Yet individual feminine autonomy was reflected by a public leadership role that did not defy accepted societal roles. Instead the individualism promoted by Spiritualism complied with the values of the era known as the cult of true womanhood (82).
        The cult of true womanhood characterized the nature of women with stereotypes of purity, piety, passivity, and domesticity (82). Ironically, these very accolades confirmed women and religion to be mutually agreeable. Each was suited to the other. However in the mainstream, women were still required to remain deferential to men in all houses of worship and were left in the dark regarding any administrative action within the church. They certainly were not allowed to be ordained. Looking back to the new religious view of women in the home, this interpretation of women's nature contradicted the domestic ideals for which they were preferred. Spiritualists interpreted feminine nature differently.
        Spiritualism did not deny the characteristics defined by the cult of true womanhood. They readily acknowledged the qualities that were attributed to the disqualification of women in leadership roles. However, Spiritualism saw these qualities differently. They saw them as confirmation for women to take up the reins of leadership within the religious community. A delicate constitution and nervous excitability, considered hallmarks of feminine virtue, added up to the possibility of special spiritual sensitivities, which translated into the ability to communicate with spirits (Braude, 83). Spiritualism embraced the stereotypes relating to women in the 19th century and threw them back in the face of religious and societal authority. This robust argument along with the faith's ideals regarding society's reform drew Spiritualism into the realm of social organizations where it found a camaraderie with the women's suffrage movement and the fight to end slavery.
        The leading women of the suffrage movement, Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, experienced the occurrences of raps and knocks. It is believed that the very desk on which the two wrote the "Declaration of Sentiments" was itself a victim of mysterious rappings [10]. The two movements became intertwined by their common ideals and challenges of societal norms: "While not all feminists were Spiritualists, all Spiritualists advocated woman's rights" (Braude, 58). Spiritualists were radically enthusiastic in their support of women's rights. They not only participated in events supporting a woman's right to vote, they also added the cause to their own meetings' agendas. Spiritualism became the most important vehicle for women's rights in the 19th century because of its widespread popularity and its ability to reach a larger audience.
        However, despite their overwhelming devotion to the cause, women's rights were not the only social concern for Spiritualists. Abolitionists, fervently intent on ending slavery, found themselves united with Spiritualists by their common ideals regarding individualism. Many in the movement based their opposition to slavery on the argument that such an institution supported the "unjust usurpation of the individual autonomy of one person by another" (Braude 60). Spiritualists eagerly joined the cause for emancipation seeing a similarity with the struggle of women. Unfortunately Spiritualism's devotion to women's rights caused a schism within the abolitionist group. The issue of a woman's public participation split the group right down the middle; those opposed were fearful the issue would overshadow their main agenda, freeing the slave. Spiritualists continued the fight for both, but the cause of women always remained the paramount issue of social reform.
        Spiritualism boasted as many as two million followers in 1855 (Haslam, 2). Its popularity was such that petitions presented to the United States Senate requested legislation to authorize an investigation to prove the validity of spiritual phenomena. In light of more pressing matters, the Senate declined to act. However Spiritualism's fifteen minutes of fame was fleeting when a number of issues arose that damaged its reputation and destroying its powerful platform for social reforms. From the beginning skeptics had always questioned the validity of the spiritual phenomena and in the 1880s investigators "began looking into and exposing the many fraudulent mediumship schemes" (Haslam 2). Well-known mediums, Mr. and Mrs. Nelson Holmes, deceived Robert Dale Owen, famous reformer and freethinker, by producing a materialized spirit, Katie King, who kissed Mr. Owen and gave him a lock of her hair. After publicly endorsing the validity of their talents, he met a young woman who had portrayed the spirit who had so charmed him. This was one of many examples of the deceptive practices frauds engaged in that tainted the very essence of Spiritualism. In 1888, the Fox sisters appeared in New York City and Margaret claimed Spiritualism to be a fraud as well as evil. She admitted they had been faking all along. A tour followed to expose the fakery, but Katherine continued to work as a medium [11].
        Spiritualism's popularity foundered in the remaining years of the 19th century, returning to only a shadow of its former self following a resurgence during World War I. It never regained the level of fame or notoriety it enjoyed in the mid-1800s. Today Spiritualism exists on a much smaller scale with small pockets of believers throughout the world. Shortly after the Fox sisters' extravaganza, a movement was started to organize the faith into some form of national organization. The idea of a formal structure inspired fear and indignation in many Spiritualists. They had witnessed what had happened to Methodism and Quakerism once institutionalization had silenced the spirit and restricted freedoms (Braude, 163). In order to preserve the freedom of the individual, Spiritualists routinely dismissed any talk of organizational rhetoric. Today there are not only associations and organizations, but temples and churches as well.
        Due to the wide variety of organizations claiming to practice Spiritualism along with the massive amount of sites on the World Wide Web, I have focused my research on three separate Spiritualist churches: the Society of Novus Spiritus of Campbell California, the First Spiritualist Temple of East Aurora New York, and the First Spiritual Temple of Boston Massachusetts. While all three believe basic spiritual tenets, there are profound differences that must be discussed in order to understand the impact of Spiritualism on the 20th century faithful. All three uphold a firm belief in a spirit world and the ability to communicate with it through mediums and channeling. Reincarnation is another tenet or belief they all have in common, however the reasons for reincarnation differ. All three churches also believe in God, but an idea of just what God is or isn't, differ dramatically.
        Renowned psychic Sylvia Browne founded the Society of Novus Spiritus in 1986. Calling it her monument to God, Sylvia proclaims it to be a forum in which to "express the joy and love that is God - with no fear, no guilt, no sin, no hell, and no Satan" (Browne, 1). The Society's vision of God is dualistic in nature, both male and female. Ms Browne justifies this belief with a line from Genesis: "Let us make man in our own image, in the likeness of ourselves . . . " and verifies the Mother God's name is Azna given to her by her Spirit Guide, Francine [12]. The church upholds the teachings of Christ but restricts them to only two statements appearing in John 14:6: "I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father but through me". Using passages from the Bible to justify beliefs, one would think that Novus Spiritus views the book as Holy Scripture, but it does not. The Bible is viewed as a "marvelous book of learning and hope for a (then) tired world "(Browne, 5). It is not considered the unaltered word of God due to centuries of change in the world and glaring deletions from its pages. Novus Spiritus lists 18 tenets or guidelines for living, disputes the existence of Satan, finds man and not God to be the creators of evil, and sees reincarnation as a means for each individual to perfect their soul. Sylvia Browne supports the non-profit organization with private donations and fees for her psychic readings [13].
        The origins of First Spiritualist Temple of East Aurora are not detailed at their web sight, however their beliefs and tenets are outlined in an article written by a Temple member [14]. Temple members adhere to a Declaration of Principles handed down from the National Spiritualist Association of Churches. These principles are a short list of beliefs and affirmations [15]. Unlike Novus Spiritus, FST does not believe Jesus to be God, rather they believe Jesus was a human being and "one of the greatest mediums that ever lived on the earth plane" (Loffredo, 12). While they may use the Bible within the structure of their lectures, it is not considered central to their religion nor their beliefs. The Temple states categorically that Spiritualism is not Christianity due in large part to their definition of God as the "God of your understanding" and not the Supreme Being sitting on a throne watching over you as you worship (11). The Temple does not specify a belief in reincarnation, but does state a belief in the continuity of life. The First Spiritualist Temple seems primarily concerned with their present life and the ability to achieve, with the aid of the spirit world, the effect of harmony and continuity.
        The First Spiritual Temple of Boston was founded in 1885 by Marcellus S Ayer. They devote a great deal of credit for their church to the work of Mrs. E.R. Dyar, a trance and physical medium from 1884-1888, whose spirit contact, Christal, was and continues to be the magnet for a group of spirits (the Temple Band) who guide the church. The biggest difference between this church and the others mentioned is that the Boston Temple defines itself as a Spiritualist Christian church. They believe in one God, the Father of us all. There is no Mother God noted. Jesus Christ is the Messiah and his ministry and teachings are supported in their belief system. Proof of the spirit world is found within Scripture (1 Peter 3:18) when Jesus is resurrected as Spirit. The Boston Temple considers the Bible to be Holy Scripture even though it may not be the absolute Word of God. They also believe in reincarnation as an evolutionary process for the spirit, consider channeling to be the equivalent of divine communication, and like the followers in the 19th century believe that communication with loved ones who have passed on provides a tremendous comfort to those who stay behind.
        At first it sounds like each church has a belief structure conveniently tucked underneath the umbrella of Spiritualism, but that is not necessarily true. Spiritualism has always based its religious beliefs on a strict tenet of individualism along with a great dislike of organizational authority. The differences in these churches, along with their similarities, strongly support individualism while each church employs only the most basic organizational effects to insure an ability to reach followers in the reality of the 20th century. Like the Spiritualism of the 19th century, today's believers are striving to find something within their faith that traditional Christianity does not offer. Two members of the First Spiritualist Temple in East Aurora were kind enough to assist me in my research and what they told me speaks volumes to what Spiritualism offers to those who feel on the periphery of traditional doctrine. The ultimate authority of your life and faith is not a priest or a church or a book, the authority resides within you. Put no one between yourself and God [16].

- Susan M DeClercq

ENDNOTES

1 I realize the church used its growing powers early in its existence to silence women and reduce their status and importance within the Christian hierarchy, but for purposes of this paper it seems unnecessary to include specifics of that nature.
2 The church initially dismissed both claims and warned both parties of the dangers of continuing to put forth such ideas. Once the hierarchy confirmed the visions the children were secreted away into convents for a life of prayer and devotion. The two younger children of Fatima, a boy and a girl died in childhood.
3 In 1851 a Dr. J.B. Campbell located and persuaded a former resident of the house, Michael Weekman, to testify that frequent rappings and other unexplained phenomena forced his family to flee the house in 1847. Farnell, Earl Wesley. The Unhappy Medium: Spiritualism and the life of Margaret Fox. (UMI, Ann Arbor Michigan, 1998: 9-10).
4 "Here, Mr. Split-foot, do as I do!" Farnell, Earl Wesley, 11.
5 Not only did Leah Fish market her sisters' talents and handle the expanding family finances; she also encouraged the events by composing music transmitted directly from spiritual rappings. Farnell, Earl Wesley 19-20.
6 This came about when women began to be associated with the purity, religiosity, and the nurturing nature of Mary instead of with the temptress Eve who led men into sin. Braude, Ann. Radical Spirits: Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-century America. (Beacon Press, Boston, Massachusetts, 1989: 39).
7 Women were encouraged to pursue their spiritual fulfillment through the salvation of their families and not through the pursuit of their own. Braude, Ann, 39.
8 House Church members joined with the knowledge that they entered into an association of equals. Schussler Fiorenza, Elizabeth. In Memory of Her. (New York: Crossroad Publishing Co, 1988: 181).
"At a time when no churches ordained women and many forbade them to speak aloud in church, Spiritualist women had equal authority, equal opportunities, and equal numbers in religious leadership. Braude, Ann, 3.
9 "In early Christianity, the term prophecy referred to a direct communication of a Deity to the prophet or through the prophet as medium". Kienzle, Beverly and Walker, Pamela, ed. Women Preachers and Prophets through Two Millenia of Christianity. (Berkeley:Univ of California Press, 1998: 22).
10 The declaration formed the agenda for the first women's rights convention. Braude, 58.
11Katherine died in 1892 of alcoholism, Margaret died in 1893 sick and destitute in Brooklyn. Haslam, Garth. "Spiritualism". Available at www.sonic.net/~anomaly, 1999:2.
12 Genesis 1:26. The New Jerusalem Bible, 1985.
13 Sylvia Browne charges $650.00 per in-person reading and $600.00 for a reading over the phone. Her son who is also a psychic charges half. www.sylvia.org
14 Spiritualist Basics by Joseph Loffredo.
15    1. We believe in Infinite Intelligence.
        2. We believe that the phenomena of Nature, both physical and spiritual, are the expression of  Infinite         Intelligence.
        3. We affirm that a correct understanding of such expression and living in accordance therewith, constitute a true         religion.
        4. We affirm that the existence and personal identity of the individual continue after the change called death.
        5. We affirm that communication with the so-called dead is a fact, scientifically proven by the phenomena of         Spiritualism.
        6. We believe that the highest morality is contained in the Golden Rule: "Whatsoever ye would that others should         do unto you do ye also unto them."
        7. We affirm the moral responsibility of the individual, and that we make our own happiness or unhappiness as we         obey or disobey Nature's physical and spiritual laws.
        8. We affirm that the doorway to reformation is never closed against any human soul here or hereafter.
        9. We affirm that the precepts of Prophecy and Healing contained in all sacred texts are Divine attributes proven         through Mediumship.
16Thank you Leilani Abbott and Joseph Loffredo.