Back to military matters, the next city to suffer the wrath of Athens was Naxos. This city had deserted Persia and fought with the Greeks at Salamis. The city seems not to have been well rewarded but put under pressure to aid the Delian league's need for ships. Naxos was the first to question Athens's motives. So Athens blockaded the island in 468, either to prevent Persia from getting their hands on it, or to set an example. The island had no hope and capitulated in 467. Themistocles passed by the island while fleeing to Ionia.
Now with an active fleet in the middle of the Aegean sea, Athens moved strike at the Persians on there own territory. This would certainly keep allies from defecting and neutral states into joining. So, Cimon led sons of the warheros of the Persian Wars to a stunning victory. He seems to have been raiding Persian posts along the southern coast of Anatolia. The Persians, who were now weakened compared to 15 years back, still rallied a fleet. The admiral of the Persian fleet was Tithraustes, and the general of the land army was Pherendates. Ariomandes, the son of Gobryas, had the supreme command of all the forces. But the Persians were unwilling to fight at sea. They were waiting for Phoenician reinforcements from Cyprus.
The Persian sailors were probably the sons of the men who fought with Xerxes, and were terrified. The ships retreated into the mouth of the Eurymedon river. The Athenians captured 200 ships not yet evacuated by the Persians. Those who did escape fled to their land army who outnumbered the Athenians. The Greeks flushed with victory compelled Cimon to order them to land on the beach. They charged the Persians, who stood firm. It seems that pure adrenaline and courage, plus probably the inferior ability of the Persian soldier, gave the Greeks victory. The date of this battle will probably never be known but since the Persians had a reasonable force and the Greeks had their navy operating far from Greece, would indicate June to August. The year was most likely 466 BC but could be 465. Immediatly or soon after the 80 Phoenician ships were captured at sea by Cimon. In the words of Plutarch: "he surpassed that of Salamis and Plataea in a single day."
It should be noted that the dates of events since the Persian wars ended is uncertain. The main sources for info about this time, 479-465 BC, are Plutarch and Thucydides. The date of the battle of the Eurymedon River has been estimated from 468 to 465 BC.
In 465 BC, probably early in the year, the Athenians got into an arguement with the fertile and now wealthy island of Thasos. This island off the coast of Thrace tried to leave the Delian league. The problem was that the Athenians were trying to extort too much wealth from the successful gold mines on the mainland. Thasos told Athens to get out of their trading posts. Big mistake. Thasos had only 35 ships, Athens had several hundred. But Thasos seemed to be capable of some defence, so in the summer the fleet arrived and defeated 33 Thasian vessals and laid siege to the city of Thasos. This seige was to last 3 seasons (winter to summer) and ended in 463. Thasos had to surrender the rest of its fleet, destroy its walls, and give up its mines on the mainland. In other words it was made a dependant of Athens. But Cimon was in trouble like Pausanius was. He would be accused of plotting secretly with Alexander of Macedon. This had to do with events on the mainland of Thrace.
In 465 Athens decided to colonize the western coastal area of Thrace. Ten thousand settlers were sent to establish a colony. The native Thracians didn't like this. At Drabescus they fell upon the Athenians. The Athenians needed wood for a new fleet and the colony would supply this. Thasos, probably realizing future Athenian weakness in the midst of their own problem, appealed to Sparta for help. Sparta surely would have invaded Attica now, but they had their own problems.
Sometime in 464 there was a terrible earthquake in Laconia, the area south of Sparta. All but five buildings in Sparta were destroyed. The gymnasium where the young boys were training collapsed, killing all who hadn't been off chasing a rabbit. The king of Sparta, Archidamus, called the citizens to arms. The Helots, the state owned serfs who tilled soil, seemed to have been safe from the falling buildings. They now outnumbered the Spartans greatly. This was the main reason for Sparta not helping Thasos. The Helots revolted and seized several towns and the countryside. They established a base on Mt. Ithome in Messenia. Sparta simply didn't have the manpower to crush this rebellion. So they appealed to all their old allies, even Athens, for help.
In 463 BC Thasos came to terms with Athens. Cimon now had to defend his actions. Basically he was accused of being bought off by Alexander of Macedon to not use Thasos as a base to invade his country. It seems that Macedonia was not in the good grace of Athenian leaders. Cimon was also charged with misusing his money. He still had enough support to be aquitted, But this support was from the admirers of Sparta. So in 462 BC Sparta, after almost two years of fighting the Helots, needed help. Cimon wanted to take troops to help who he considered worthy. "They ought not to suffer Greece to be lamed, nor their own city to be deprived of her yoke-fellow." Ephialtes didn't want to help a potential enemy and A rival. A new man, Pericles, also had this view.
The Athenian expedition was a disaster for Cimon. The 4000 Athenian hoplites were unable to take Mt. Ithome by storm. The Spartans considered this to be playing politics and sent the Athenians home. Seathing with rage, the hoplites blamed Cimon. In the winter of 462/461, he was ostracised or banished for 10 years. Athens had also made a new alliance with Argos, Sparta's rival on the Pelopennese. This made the Spartans quite angry. Athens also allied themselves with cities in Thessaly. This was designed to check a possible Macadonian-Spartan alliance. But Athens opened up a whole new can of worms when they allied themselves with Megara. This city near the Isthmus of Corinth was involved in a hot border dispute with the larger city of Corinth. Corinth, who had no love for Sparta either, didn't appreciate Athens weaseling in on their business. Clearly Corinth considered themselves more important than Athens did, even though the Corinthians fought valiantly at the battle of Salamis. This was the beggining of the hatred that Corinth would have for Athens and the cause of the First Peloponnesian war.
In the meantime Athens was undergoing political change. Ephialtes pushed through reforms that limited the power of the aristocracy. He was later murdered for these reforms. This left Pericles as head of the democratic party in Athens. But his rule was not as absolutely firm as he would have liked or as historians of the past put it. Thucydides for example, never said anything bad about him. Thucydides was born right about the time that Pericles took power, so early non-military events weren't important.
In 460 Athens concluded its treaty with Megara. War was now inevitable. It is sometimes called the "First Peloponnesian War". The Athenian military was now garrisoning the north end of the Corinthian Isthmus. In 459 the Helots finally surrendered to Sparta. They left the Peloponesse for good. Athens resettled them in the city of Naupactus. Athens now began to build the famous long walls to the 2 harbors Piraeus and Phaleron. At this time the battles began to happen. In the Gulf of Argolis, the date is unknown but probably in the late spring, the Corinthians won the naval battle of Halieis. The next battle at Cecryphalea (today's Angistrion) was a victory for the Athenians. Also Athens decided to take over the island of Aegina. The island held a very strategic position. Aegina was also an ally of Corinth. In a sea battle the Athenians captured 70 ships. Then they landed and besieged the population. The Peloponnesians sent 300 men to help them. Also in this year Athens was campaigning against Cyprus with 200 ships and now sent them to aid an Egyptian rebellion against Persia. These men captured the Nile river and 2/3 of Memphis itself. On land in Greece the Athenians had fought the Corinthians with an army of old men and boys. After a fierce battle that settled nothing, the leaders of Corinth sent the army out to the battle field to raise a monument of victory. The Athenians surrounded the workers and killed them. This was 12 days after the first battle. Then the retreating Corinthians trapped themselves in an enclosed private estate. The Athenians cornered many and stoned them to death. The bulk of the Corinthian army did escape, but this was a humiliating disaster. The fact that no fleet was recalled from either Egypt or Cyprus, or the army from Aegina, it shows how many men served in the Athenian navy. It must have been over 60,000 men. In early 458 or so the Phocians decided to campaign against the city of Doris. This province in central Greece was the original homeland of the Lacedaemonians. This gave Sparta an excuse to operate in the area. Although the sentiment to protect the motherland was a factor, it is obvious that Sparta had more practical motives. Boeotian lands were a prime target in this time.
In the spring of 457 the Spartan forces are trying to march home but the Athenians control all the passages back to the Pelopennese. So the Athenians, 14,000 strong, march out to fight at Tanagra. The exiled Cimon tried to fight with the Athenians, but was barred from it. This battle was quite large for the time. After a horrid fight, and some Athenian allies switching sides, the Spartans and their allies were victorios. An embarresed Athens, 62 days later, marched out and smashed the local Boeotians at the battle of Oenophyta. The Athenians now were in a position to secure their north for 10 years. Also later this year, after a seige that started 459/458, Aegina surrendured to Athens. Later in the year the Athenians completed the two long walls that enclosed their harbors. They will build a second to Piraeus later. Athens made a treaty with the western Sicilian city of Segesta this year. Also the Athenians sent the home fleet, from Aegina, around the Peloponnese under the command of Tolmides. The fleet captured the Corinthian town of Chalcis and the rich city of Sicyon was defeated in battle. It seems that the early battle of Tanagra had to be avenged.
While 457 BC was somewhat successful for Athens, 456 wouldn't be. The 200 Athenian vessals and their crews, who hadn't been home for at least 5 years, were still in Egypt. The Persians had tried to bribe the Spartans into invading Athenian territory to draw the troops from Egypt. This was unsuccessful and the Persians sent an army to Egypt to defeat the rebels. After defeating the Egyptians, they next drove the Greeks from Memphis and cornered them on the island of Prosopitis. The Persians besieged the Greeks for 18 months. After the Persians diverted the waters of the Nile to ground the Athenian ships, the Persians marched over and captured the island. The Greeks were probably dead or starving, an easy capture in the spring of 454 BC. Then 50 relief ships appeared and most were promptly captured by the Persians. Thousands of Greek sons dead for nothing. In around 455 Athens had tried to capture Pharsalus in Thessaly and failed. In the next year 1000 Athenians, under Pericles, raided the Pelopennese from their fleet. The Sicyonians fought them again and lost. Later the fleet sailed to the city of Oeniadae in Acarnania. They failed to take the city however. Also in 454 BC Athens decided to move the treasurey of the Delian League from Delos to Athens itself. This could indicate a fear of revolt growin in the Aegean islands, or lack of naval protection after the defeat in Egypt. This led to the recall of Cimon, by Pericles himself. In 451 BC he helped negotiate a 5 year truce between Athens and the Peloponnesians. Argos made a 30 year peace with Sparta. Athens now began to build a second long wall to Piraeus.
But still Athens desired war. In 450 they went off to Cyprus again under Cimon with 200 ships. 60 ships went to Egypt to help an ally, and Cimon besieged the city of Citium on the southern coast of Cyprus. Unfortunatly here, under debated cicumstances, Cimon died. He likely died of an illness caused by lack of good food. Then the Greeks off the "Salamis of Cyprus" won a joint land and sea victory against the Phoenicians, Cyprians, and Cilicians. The victors, now joined by the 60 ships from Egypt, sailed home. In 449 BC the Greeks and the Persians signed the so-called "Peace of Callias". This officially ended the Greco-Persian wars. Greece is barely at peace. Pericles decided to use the money from the Delian league tribute to rebuild the Athenian Acropolis. He had also tried to hold a conference of all greek cities. He had good intensions but such a thing was impossible at this time.
But Sparta wouldn't stay still. They were able to find an excuse to get involved again in central Greece. The oracle in the temple of Apollo at Delphi was of great importance. The oracle at Delphi was controled by the Phocians, who were good friends with Athens, who got priority at the oracle. In 448 Sparta marched into Phocian territory and restored control of the temple to Delphi. This might not have been so bad if the Delphians hadn't given Sparta first crack at the oracle when they wanted it. So nothing really stopped Pericles marching with an army to restore the oracle to Phocian control. This kind of Athenian imperialism enraged the Greek cities. Some in Euboea and Boeotia (Orchomenus, Chaeronea, Histiaea, Chalcis, ect..) decided in 447 that enough was enough. Then the Athenians invaded their land and the city of Chaeronea was captured and enslaved by 1000 Athenian heavy infantry and allies. On the way back to Athens at Coronea in 446 BC, the rebels (Boeotians, Euboeans and Locrians) ambushed the Athenians and took many prisoner. This discrace was exploited brilliantly by the rebels. By treaty they were to arrange the withdrawl of all Ahtenian forces from desputed areas. The fact that the Athenians accepted this would indicate the captured soldiers were of wealth and influence, possibly sons of civic leaders. On such leader, Clinias, is killed and his 4 year old son Alcibiades is adopted by Pericles. The news of such a defeat spread fast and the whole island of Euboea rose in revolt. This was expected to happen. Athens could demand anything from her allies, or steal it, and no one could complain since Athens had the army and the navy, which they all paid to maintain. In 448 BC after peace was declared with Persia the tribute was suspended. But in 447 the tribute was paid again, which could only be Athenian greed. So eventually some would fight back. And when they joined, they one the first round. The tribute was now used to begin rebuilding the temples on the Acropolis, which were in ruins. Phidas was in charge of the project and Pericles was very proud to be the inspiration. But he had more important problems now.
While the Athenians were begining operations on Euboea, news arrived that Megara had revolted and killed the Athenian garrison. They had already admitted Corinthians, Sicyonians, and Epidaurians into the city. But what was worse was that the King of Sparta, Pleistoanax, son of Pausanias, marched an army towards Attica and got as far as Eleusis, plundering the area. Pericles returned to fight if necessary. The king of Sparta however was not thinking for himself. The real leader was Cleandrides, an advisor. Pericles seems to have bought him off to convince the king not to fight. But more likely there was an agreement for Athens to stay out of central greece and Sparta would stay out of Euboean affairs. Sparta's army went home much to the dismay of its people. Pericles went right back to Euboea with 5000 men and 50 ships and subdued the island. Histiaea was taken over by Athens for a plantation colony. Pericles had its people killed, for killing all on an Attic ship. This was Pericles' only act of severity. Athens and Sparta next signed a 30 year peace treaty, the "Thirty Years' Peace" in the winter of 446/445. Athens lost its former conquests in Greece, especialy Megara. This didn't go well in Sparta either. King Pleistoanax was driven into exile for not pressing the invasion. Cleandrides fled and was sentanced to death in exile. His son was Gylippus, who will be well known at a later date. Also at this time the second long wall to Piraeus was finished, since Athens was vunerable by land invasion.
In the last half of the 440's there was relative peace among the cities of Greece. A new colony was set up in Italy near the ruins of the city of Sybaris, at the instigation of Athens. The name of the colony was Thurii. It was a Panhellenic colony (all Greeks were welcome). Herodotus, the historian of the Persian wars, stayed there. The year of the founding was most likely 443 BC. Meanwhile in Athens that year Pericles gained almost unchallenged power. His main opponent Thucydides (not the historian) criticized Pericles' use of defence tribute from the Delian league to build the Parthenon, now grossly expensive. This wasn't a good choice for Thucydides. The building of it was likely usefull with those who that year had him ostracised. Pericles could now do as he pleased. One such thing was a later expedition into the Black Sea, to show Athenian might and secure sea routes for grain shipments from the Tauric Chersonese (Crimean Peninsula in the modern Ukraine). This expedition isn't dated but likely in 439. But now there had been problems begining in the empire. The first was the island of Samos.
In 441 the people of Samos went to war against Miletos over the town of Priene. Samos won and Miletos appealed to Athens. Samos had many ships and they couldn't get too powerfull. When they tried to overthrow the pro-Athenian government, an oligarchy, Pericles asked the Athenian assembly to go to war. Fitting out a fleet of 40 warships they sailed to Samos to install a democratic government. This was done quickly and 50 leading men and 50 of their children were put on the island of Lemnos as political hostages. Athens also installed a garrison on Samos. But the Samians would give up. Some rebels had escaped to Asia and made a deal with the Persian governor of Sardis, Pisuthnes. Sneaking back to the island with 700 mercenaries they captured the Athenian garrison and the hostages from Lemnos. Byzantium in the north revolted as well. With the Persians now involved, Athens in 440 sailed with 60 ships to end it all. 16 ships sailed south to watch for the Persian fleet and Pericles commanded the other 44. In the early summer of 440 off the small island of Tragia Pericles and his ships routed 70 of the enemy. 20 were transports though so it was a 44 to 50 fight. Now the real campaign began. 40 more ships arrived from Athens and 25 from the Ionian allies. Now landing at Samos the island was quickly captured and the city of Samos was besieged. Pericles then left with 60 ships to find the Persian fleet that he thought was approaching. This was a mistake and the Samians sallied from the city on the remaining Athenians and captured several of their commanders. This was a devestating defeat for Athens, since the Samians captured several ships and had control of the sea for 14 days, which they wisely used to get supplies. When Pericles got back he was able to hem them into the city once again. 40 more ships of reinforcements arrived from Athens. It was a long and hard siege that took 9 months. Many Athenians died. Pericles was interested by the new siege batteries that had recently been invented. The city surrendered in early 439. Samos' ships were destroyed, hostages given over, a heavy fine paid, and walls burt to the ground. Byzantium also came to terms. Back in Athens, Pericles gave a funeral oration at the dedication of the cemetary. Elpinice, sister of Cimon, critized him for so many dead in beating down an ally. Notice that Sparta stayed out of this completly.
In 437-436, Athens finally founded a major settlement in the northern Aegean. Hagnon the son of Nicias founded it. Athens had tried to settle 29 years before and were now determined to. The area was rich in precious metals and wood for ship building. The area was also quite close to the Corinthian colony of Potidaea. Also at this time the Parthenon was finished and the golden statue of Athena was completed. Other building continued but Pericles wouldn't see them completed. Now in the next year the events which led straight to the war of the Greeks begins.
The Greek city of Epidamnus, which the Romans would call Dyrrachium, that we call Durres was founded about 620 BC. It was a colony of Corcyra but was also founded by citizens of Corinth, the mother city of Corcyra. Epidamnus was now a democracy and the exiled aristocrats joined the local Illyrian barbarians. The city appealed to Corcyra for help. This city had gained much wealth and now had a fleet of 120 warships. They couldn't give a damn about Epidamnus. So they next appealed to Corinth for protection. Corinth was more than willing to help out since Corcyra had been quite insulting to them. Corinth sent men out overland to their colony of Apollonia in late 436 to avoid Corcyreaen sea patrols. When these men arrived the Corcyrans were outraged and sailed with 40 ships to reinstall the aristocrats in Epidamnus. They asked the foreigners in Epidamnus to leave or face the music. They refused and Corcyra besieged Epidamnus. Corinth raised money, men, and ships to relieve the city. 3000 Corinthian heavy infantry went along for obvious reasons. Of course Corcyra learned of this, Leucas and Ambracia were neighbors and aided Corinth with 18 ships. So Corcyra went over Corinth's head and appealed to Sparta. Envoys from Sparta, Sicyon, and Corcyra met in Corinth to discuss the matter. Corcyra said that Corinth had no business in Epidamnus. But they were willing to negotiate. Corinth said they would not negiotate as long as Corcyra besieged Epidamnus. Corinth would leave if Corcyra would drop the siege. Since this was going nowhere, war was the only option. In 435 BC Corinth and her allies sailed for Epidamnus. Off the harbour of Actium, the Corcyrans gave them one last chance. Corinth refused peace. Their 75 vessels faced 80 ships from Corcyra. On that day the Corcyrans won the day, sinking 15 enemy ships. On the same day, likely in May. Epidamnus capitulated. The sea fight was known as the battle of Leukimme. A monument was raised on the south tip of the island of Corcyra, called Leukimme. For the rest of the summer Corcyra pilleged allies of Corinth; Leucas, even burt Cyllene on the Peloponnese. In the fall Corinth sent more ships and troops to Actium to protect these places. When winter came they went home. Corinth spent 434 and half of 433 building a much more powerfull fleet. In 433, embassies from Corinth and Corcyra were in Athens. Corcyra, to gain Athenian support; Corinth, to prevent Corcyra's navy from joining the Athenian navy. Both sides presented their case to the people of Athens.
What the 2 sides came to was that Corcyra said that if Athens joined their side, together they'd be invincible and it would only be good for Athens to agree. Also that Corcyra was a neutral state that needed help now and that it was the duty of the Athenians to aid a state that could be so influencial in the western sea from Greece. The Corinthians said that the Corcyrans were simply criminals who don't negotiate in good faith. That Corinth had the right to punish a colony that showed them such disrespect and that Athens had attacked its ally Samos only a few years before and Corinth had every right to do what it was doing. Corinth also claimed that she spoke in favour of not involving the Peloponnesian powers in the affairs of Samos. Also that Athens had a treaty with Corinth. Athens decided on a defensive alliance with Corcyra, they couldn't attack Corinth directly but could do what it took to prevent Corinth from landing on Corcyra. Athens sent 10 ships to aid the Corcyrans under Lacedaemonius, son of Cimon, and Proteas and Diotimus. It was all important not to break the 30 years' peace treaty. Corinth sailed at the start of the sailing season with 150 ships. These anchored off Corcyra at the mainland and the Corcyrans manned 110 ships to meet them off the islands of Sybota. The Corinthians sailed out at night to meet the Corcyrans and the Athenians at dawn. The Corinthians sailed on their sides left wing to face the Athenians directly. The battle was said to be like a land fight due to the large contingents of infantry on the ships. In the battle the Corinthian right wing was routed and drove to the mainland and their camp burned, but the Corinthian left wing was able to turn the flank of the Corcyran right. The Athenians were waiting outside the battle and now had to break their instructions and engage to aid their allies. In the confused and bloody fight, the largest Greek vs. Greek sea battle yet, the Corinthians had the upper hand. The fight lasted for hours and by the end of the day both sides were ready to attack again. Just as they were about to engage the Corinthians began to back off at the sight of 20 Athenian reinforcement ships commanded by Glaucon. The Corcyrans soon saw the ships and backed off, it was now getting dark. The next day the Athenians and the Corcyraeans sailed to Sybota to engage the Corinthians. But they sailed out in a line and wouldn't budge. A boat was sent out and the Corinthians accused Athens of breaking the treaty, Athens said they would defend their ally. Both sides claimed victory but Corinth had the better. They had 1050 prisoners and sunk about 70 enemy ships. 250 prisoners were rich and prominent citizens of Corcyra. They hoped that the Corcyraeans would change sides. Corinth captured the city of Anactorium on their voyage home. It should be noted that at this time Athens concluded treaties with the cities of Rhegium on the toe of Italy and Leontini in southeast Sicily. The west was now much more a priority.
Meanwhile in 432 BC on the eastern side of Greece, another Corinthian colony was causing trouble. Potidaea was also a member of the Delian league and on the strategic Pallene isthmus. Athens orders her to pull down her south wall, give hostages and expell the Corinthians that were there. Potidaea tried to appeal to Athens but it was hopeless. Potidaea joined with other cities on the Chalcidice and with the Bottiaeans in Macedonia and revolted in March. The first Athenian force sent of 30 ships could do nothing here but went on to capture Therme and besiege Pydna. Corinth gathered 2000 "volunteers" to aid the Potidaeans. They arrived in 40 days of the start of the rebellion. The Athenians sent 2000 more men and 40 ships to the region. When they reached Potidaea they fought a battle with the Corinthians and Potidaeans at the city walls. On the Corinthian wing the Athenians were pushed back but they prevailed on the other side. When those Potidaeans fled into the city the Corinthians had to rush in under a storm of missles. Athens lost 150 of their citizens, including their general Callias. The other side lost 300 men. Athens besieged the north wall and had to get reenforcements sent to attack the south wall. The city was able to get word to the Peloponnese. With its allies' friends now clearly suffering under Athenian power, it was time for a meeting of the Peloponnesian allies.
In July of 432 BC a meeting was held in Sparta where other Peloponnesians spoke their grievences of Athens, specificaly Megara and Corinth. Megara was banned from trading with any city in the Athenian empire. Corinth had just fought a two year war that gained little, but the seige of Potidaea was the last straw. A quick invasion of Attica was insisted on. There were some Athenian officials in the city who spoke for their city. They said that Athens had aquired its empire by non-violence and that Athens had earned its current position. And that Sparta had its own power in the Peloponnese by force so they had no right to complain. But they said nothing of the recent military matters. The king of Sparta, Archidamus spoke to the effect that a war with Athens was almost impossible to win. The Ephor of Sparta asked for a vote on an alleged breach of treaty. The allies in a majority voted the treaty with Athens broken. The 30 Years Peace ended in its 14th year. War was all that was left to declare. A month or so later, the Peloponnesian League met and again voted for war. Since it was now late summer, nothing was done until spring, except to send embassies to Athens.
This page was completed on May 17, 2001 AD