In Gaul in 53 BC Caesar was a little worried about affairs in the northern sections and revolt growing. Since he lost 15 cohorts he was required to personally lead his two newly formed legions (it took time to train a legion) and ask Pompey for a third. The fact that Pompey agreed at this at the time could show he wanted to have some of his men with Caesar and to have Caesar in his debt. Now Caesar had ten legions. This was quite a force to deal with uncivilized barbarians whereas Crassus was going to use seven to conquer Parthia, a civilized people. Anyway Caesar began his campaign before winter was over, meaning early March or so. He makes short work of the Nervii tribe and then calls a meeting of all the tribes at the beginning of spring. Those who don't show up are the ones he considers in rebellion. They are the Senones, the Carnutes, and the Treviri. Caesar moves his headquarters to Lutetia, modern Paris, to secure his position. He then marches to the Senoens territory. They and the Carnutes surrender hostages to Caesar through his Gallic allies. Caesar pardons them and leaves them alone. Now Caesar becomes obsessed with taking on the Treviri and Ambiorix of the Eburones. Caesar sends 2 legions to the Treviri under Labienus, who was wintering in their land, and he takes 5 legions to conquer the Menapii lands since they border the enemy and had never consulted with Caesar on peace. Caesar kills and loots this tribe to the surrender table. He then goes to conquer the Treviri. It is probably mid May by now. The Treviri have made an alliance with the Germans and are sending forces over the Rhine. But the barbarians decide to attack Labienus and his three legions. He tricks them into battle by faking a retreat. His men turn on the Gauls and slaughter them. Labienus captures the whole state in several days.

Caesar, not to be out done by his lieutenant, decides to cross the Rhine again. He says he wants to encircle Ambiorix, and to punish the Germans for aiding the Gauls. He builds another bridge over the river just up from where the old one was. He builds this bridge in only a few days. Since it was probably mid June, there was lots of daylight to build a bridge. He says the soldiers had great exertion, meaning they worked as hard as humans could. Over the Rhine he meets the Ubii, his allies and does not harm them. He wants to punish the Suevi, since they had aided the Treviri. He gets the Ubii to ravage their lands and learns that the anti roman Germans have retreated far inland to an area called Bacenis, a huge wooded area. But since food in the area was scarce, Caesar took his army back to Gaul after probably only 2 weeks in Germany. But he breaks down only 200 feet of the far end of the bridge. He leaves 12 cohorts, 1 1/8 of a legion, to guard the bridge. He then sends the Roman cavalry, under L. Minucius Basilu, to surround the enemies territory and Caesar would close in. However this guy stumbles into Ambiorix. But he got away when his companions sacrificed themselves to let him get away. Ambiorix then gains control when his old partner, Cativolcus, kills himself when he drinks the juice of a yew tree. Now Ambiorix rules all of the Eburones. Caesar decided to launch a three-prong attack to conquer the Eburones' territory once and for all. It was to last seven days. While the Romans are ravaging lands from the west, German tribes seize the opportunity for plunder and attack over the Rhine from the east. The Germans learn from the Gauls of the position of the Roman base camp, now at Aduatuca, under the command of, guess who, Quintus Tullius Cicero. The Germans think they are facing a skeleton garrison, but instead a whole legion, the 14th. After seven days of staying in the camp, Cicero's men are running out of food and he finally allows 5 cohorts to gather food. Later another 300 men join them. Now the camp has just over 4 cohorts of starving men in it. Now out of nowhere the German cavalry shows up. The Romans have to put up a great defense. Some think that the barbarians have conquered Caesar and the other nine legions, and are here to finish the job. They attack the camp. The other five cohorts show up and the Germans run off to attack them. The Romans seem to be outnumbered and have to fight their way into the camp. Some make it, others don't. But the Germans lost men as well. They decided it wasn't worth it to storm the camp and kill themselves trying to take it. They take their plunder and go back to Germany. That night Caesar's cavalry returns but can't convince the men that Caesar is coming. They think he's dead. Caesar later arrived and was not too happy about what had happened. He soon left again and finished the job of annihilating the territory of the Eburones. He says himself that no building was left standing. But the Romans couldn't capture Ambiorix. He was hiding out in the woods. Caesar finished the conquest with the loss of only 2 cohorts. This is over probably by the end of July. The Eburones are never heard from again in history. He then punishes Acco, the man who started part of the revolt. Setting up quarters for winter in time and providing enough food, Caesar heads of to Cisalpine Gaul. He hadn't been there since the early spring of 54 BC. Two legions are camped near the Treviri lands, two among the Lingones, the other six at Agendicum, in the territories of the Senones. Gaul was peaceful, for now!

In 53 BC, in Rome, there was violence everywhere. It was believed that Pompey would be made dictator, but this didn't happen. No elections were held the year before and substitute officials would rule until July. Then Pompey presided over elections for officials for the "remainder" of the year. The usual heavy bribery ensued. The consuls for 53 BC were Marcus Valerius Messalla Rufus and Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus. Also by this time news had arrived in Rome about disaster in Mesopotamia.

In the spring of 53 BC Marcus Licinius Crassus and his son Publius, Caesar's former aid, march into the Parthian territories of northern Mesopotamia, today's Syria. The Parthian envoys laugh at his statement that he will march straight to Seleucia. They say hair will grow on the palms of their hands before Crassus sees Seleucia. Crassus then learns that the Parthians are not what he expected. They have better armor and weapons then the Romans thought. They had always been equated with the Armenians and the Cappadocians. Also the fast moving Parthian cavalry was quite able to attack the Roman winter garrisons and get away clean. Then the king of Armenia, Artabazes (Artavasdes) shows up to aid Crassus in the campaign. He has 6000 cavalry, 2000 more than the Romans. He promises another 10,000 plus 30,000-foot soldiers. Also supplies and a superior northern invasion route in foothills are offered. Crassus coldly says thanks but no thanks. The king then takes all his troops home. This was Crassus biggest mistake. Alexander the Great had used the northern route of the Persian royal road in his conquest. Crassus tried to play the hero and march down the Euphrates river. He also had to pick up the Roman winter garrisons that were being harassed. At Zeugma Crassus crossed his 7 legions (45,000 men, 4000 cavalry). There on the bridge a storm came up and broke part of it. Lighting hit the site where the Romans would camp across the river. Crassus then said that he would break down the bridge so his men couldn't escape. He meant that his men would have to fight to victory. But his men took it more literally instead of motivation. Then as they crossed, Crassus dropped the entrails of a sacrificial animal, a horrible thing to do infront of soldiers. He said that he wouldn't drop his sword. They crossed about May 20.

Gaius Cassius Longinius (the Cassius Caesar would know) advised Crassus to rest the army in the garrison towns and gather intelligence on the Parthians. All that was known was that great amounts of horse tracks were seen as retreating. The army marched on. Then the king of Osrhoene, Abgarus (Ariamnes) informs Crassus that the Parthians have gone to conquer Armenia. But in reality, only half of the Parthian army was doing this. The other half was under the command of a Parthian nobleman known as the Suren. He had only cavalry with him. Then Crassus decides to pull away from the Euphrates and march inland. He would have to do this anyway at some point, but it was wiser to follow Cassius' advice and continue down the river where the journey was longer but supplies could be shipped down river and it was defendable. Towards the town of Carrhae, a long desert was in the way. The Romans marched right into this. The troops weren't impressed. Anyway, the king of Osrhoene quickly left. It was obvious he was working for the Parthians.

And it came to pass on June 9, 53 BC, Crassus accidentally dressed in a black robe instead of his scarlet one. He quickly changed. Quickly marching they were now at the vicinity of Carrhae. Word now comes that some of the scouts have been killed and the enemy is here in full. Cassius gets Crassus to advance in a long thin line to avoid encirclement. But then he has them form into a huge square with the cavalry and supplies in the center. The square had 12 cohorts on each side. The idea was that the army could react in all directions. The march led to a small river called Balissus. The commanders wanted to wait there overnight but Crassus was determined to push on in a quick march. He thinks that he is facing only a small guard. His son in command of the cavalry is pushing him on. Soon the Romans come upon the Parthians. They are in one long line but the armored knights have covered their armor with skins so the Romans can't see how many there are. The Parthians use large drums all along the line that make a thunderous sound. The Romans were soon terrified. Then the Parthians uncovered their armor. They charge the Romans and soon surround them. Although the Romans outnumber the enemy by a 4 to 1 margin, it is useless here. The desert area is difficult, the Romans are very tired and thirsty. They have only about 4000 cavalry. The Parthians have 10,000 horse archers, 1000 armored knights called cuirassiers or cataphracts. Plus they have 1000 Arabian camels loaded with arrows to resupply the archers. They shoot at the Romans from all directions. Charges are useless. The Romans try to wait until the arrows run out but they soon realize they won't anytime soon. Crassus loses heart. The Romans are in a terrible position. Crassus then sends his son Publius out with his cavalry, 1300, 1000 Gauls from Caesar. Also 8 cohorts and 500 archers go with him, together 5640 men. The Parthians retreat in part enough to lead Publius far from his father. The Romans stop, believing the enemy won't attack. The Parthians stir up so much sand and dust, that the Romans can't see. Then they fire arrows at them. The arrows have barbs that rip the flesh terribly. Publius wants his men to charge but the men's shields are nailed to their hands and their feet are hurt bad. Many of these men die slow painful deaths. Publius and his horse then charge but are outnumbered greatly. The Gauls aren't used to the desert at all. many of the horses are speared under them. Publius is now badly wounded. He is taken to a sandy hill and is given the opportunity to flee to Ichnae, a nearby village. Publius refuses and has his armor bearer run him through with a sword. His officers seem to have done the same. Eventually all but 500 men are dead. The Parthians cut off Publius Crassus' head and rode towards his father's army. In the meantime Crassus was beginning to believe that his son had done the job. He moves his army expecting his son would be back. But then some messages reached him that his son was probably dead. Crassus was in horrible grief. Crassus then moved again but the enemy returned with Publius' head on a spike. They rode right up to Romans an said in so many words:

"For it was impossible that so brave and gallant a warrior should be the son of so pitiful a coward as Crassus"

"This, O my countrymen, is my own peculiar loss, but the fortune and the glory of Rome is safe and untainted so long as you are safe. But if any one be concerned for my loss of the best of sons, let him show it in revenging him upon the enemy. Take away their joy, revenge their cruelty, nor be dismayed at what is past; for whoever tries for great objects must suffer something. Neither did Lucullus overthrow Tigranes without bloodshed, nor Scipio Antiochus; our ancestors lost one thousand ships about Sicily, and how many generals and captains in Italy? no one of which losses hindered them from overthrowing their conquerors; for the State of Rome did not arrive to this height by fortune, but by perseverance and virtue in confronting danger."

It is now morning on June 12, 53 BC. The Parthians are approaching Crassus. Octavius and his officers go loyally to help him. The regular soldiers eventually follow him. The 5000 Romans drive the Parthians from the hill. They declare:

"that no arrow in Parthia should ever touch their general, so long as there was a man of them left alive to protect him"

"How is this, then? A Roman commander is on foot, whilst I and my train are mounted."

In all 20,000 Roman soldiers were killed, 12,000 taken alive, and another 10-12,000 escape back to Syria. It was Rome's worst defeat since the battle of Cannae in 216 BC. Crassus' head was taken to the Parthian King Hyrodes. It was used in a Greek stage play called "Bacchae of Euripides". Surena was soon killed by Hyrodes since he was now too successful. This eliminated Parthia's immediate threat. Roman plans in Parthia stopped.

Now before we step into the thick of it all, lets review. Proconsul Julius Caesar has conquered and reconquered parts of Gaul (France, Low Countries). He had raided the island of Britain twice (August 27, 55 BC and July 7, 54 BC), and bridged the Rhine river and raided Germany twice (very early July, 55 BC, and mid June, 53 BC). Back in Rome the political situation was beginning to deteriorate. The sheer amount of street rioting made holding elections impossible. Remember Rome was a mass-voting republic. The calendar was now out of whack by 3 months. What we call July, the government called late September. New Year's day was occurring on what would later be about October 15! Pompey's wife Julia, Caesar's daughter, had died in 54 BC and Crassus and his son Publius had died last June. So now basically it came down to the inevitable splitting then fighting of Pompey The Great (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) and Gaius Julius Caesar. But in this year it didn't happen. But however in January (seasonal October), there was still no regular magistrates. Elections held at the end of 53 for 52 were so wrought with violence that another interrex, a substitute consul who had to be a Patrician, was in office. The violence was still led by the optimate Titus Annius Milo and the Popular and Caesar supporter Publius Clodius Pulcher. Milo was trying to get the consulship for 52, Clodius the Praetorship. Clodius was the more popular. Pompey and Milo had both bitterly opposed Clodius being Consul. Anyway, on January 18, 52 BC, Clodius and Milo and their respective thugs met on the Appian way south of Rome at Bovillae. In the fight that followed Clodius was hurt. He was taken to a nearby tavern. That night Milo's men found him and killed him. His body was brought back to Rome and the crowds rioted. The body was put in the Curia Hostillia, the old Senate house, and cremated. An unforeseen side effect was the building burning to a hollow shell. The violence led of course to Milo being put on trial. Basically he was sold down the river by Pompey, who was not so friendly to him anymore. Pompey still wanted to be dictator. But the nobles wouldn't see another dictator rule them. So on February 24 Pompey was elected "Sole Consul" or "Consul without a colleague". It would allow him the basic powers of a dictator for 10 months. The senate had to chose between him and Milo. Milo was an ambitious man, but kind of a loose cannon. In the end they chose Pompey. His first action was to have troops posted in the forum for Milo's approaching trail. This was in violation of a roman law not allowing armed men within the Pomerium. The trial was on April 4-7. On the last day, Cicero was unable to make his Pro Milo speech because of the troops threatening him. Milo was found guilty. The verdict was on the 8th. Milo went into exile in Transalpine Gaul, in the city of Massilia (Marseille). Pompey also had a law passed by the ten Tribunes that allowed Caesar to run for the consulship in absentia or away from Rome. Eventually Pompey had to have a partner in the consulship, and instead of Caesar, in July he chose his new father-in-law, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio. Quintus was being charged with electoral corruption. Pompey married his daughter Cornelia. But Pompey's big law was one involving money for election bribing being paid off with extorting provincial money, called the "Lex Pompeia De Magistratibus". The law called on the consuls of old to be appointed as provincial governors. The recent magistrates were to wallow in debt for at least 5 years. Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus was appointed Governor of Syria. Marcus Tullius Cicero was sent off to Cilicia. These terms began in 51 BC. But this law had a clause that stated that those who stood for office, had to do so in person. Pompey didn't add the clause that gave Caesar acceptance to the rule. Pompey claimed he made a mistake. But the law went through. Caesar would not be happy.

Now the natives on the south coast of Gaul learned quickly what was going on in Rome. The reports were added to, as Caesar says, and the Gallic chiefs began plotting. The tribe of the Carnutes declares they will fight. In March by the calendar, the Carnutes under Cotuatus and Conetodunus slay Roman traders at the town of Genabum. News of this spreads 160 miles in one day. The war begins. At the same time the Arvernians chose the young Vercingetorix, as king. Central and western tribes give him supreme command of their forces. By the beginning of April, Rome is more settled and Caesar leaves Cisalpine Gaul. He has to go to Narbo where the Gauls are now marching to under a Cadurcan named Lucterius. Mobilizing the roman allies in the area he checks the Gallic advance. Caesar himself heads north towards his 2 legions in the Lingones, via modern Vienne. His troops have to clear 6 feet of snow in the mountains, it was January/February by season. When he arrives he gathers his whole army together. This was a great risk since it allowed all Gaul to rise in revolt and strained food supplies for the troops. Also Roman allies are very vulnerable. The early actions by Caesar cause the Arverni to submit to Vercingetorix. He decides to move north and lay siege to the Roman held town of the Boii called Gergovia.

Asking the Boii to stand firm until he arrives, Caesar leaves 2 legions to guard the supplies at Agendicum and takes the rest of the army in 2 days to the Senones town of Vellaunodunum. He takes it in 3 days and marches another 2 days to Genabum and takes the town at midnight when the people try to escape over a narrow bridge. The people are slaughtered. Caesar then goes to besiege Noviodunum. Vercingetorix takes his forces to meet Caesar. When Caesar forces the people of Noviodunum to capitulate, they rise up when Vercingetorix's cavalry arrives. Caesar uses 400 German cavalry to drive them off, killing many. Caesar punishes the town's people who got the others to rise. Then Caesar marches off towards the city of Avaricum, capital of the Brituriges. Vercingetorix now realizes that he has to starve Caesar and his men out of Gaul. He thinks he can do it since his cavalry can harass roman supply lines and allies. 20 towns of the Brituriges are burnt in one day alone. Vercingetorix wants to destroy Avaricum to keep it from the use of the Romans, but the people there beg him to spare it. Vercingetorix, not wanting to alienate, provides a proper garrison and shadowing Caesar he camps himself 15 miles from the city in the woods. Caesar soon arrives and camps outside the city, it is now probably mid May by now on the calendar. Caesar's men spend several days without food. The soldiers refused Caesar's offer to retreat since Romans were killed in Genabum in treachery. This loyalty would put the fear of the Gods into anyone in Rome, like Pompey. Vercingetorix moved closer and waited for the Romans to go out food gathering. Caesar at night led his men towards the Gauls and in morning found himself in a bad position. Not willing to risk his men's safety now, he went back to camp. Vercingetorix who wasn't there but hunting Roman foragers with the cavalry, was accused of treason. He convinced his men that he did the right thing, and shored the Gauls some roman prisoners who told them of the conditions of food stocks in the Roman camp. They were starved into answering of course. Vercingetorix has 10,000 men picked to enter the other side of the town to defend it. Caesar makes a good description of Gallic defenses:

"since they are a nation of consummate ingenuity, and most skillful in imitating and making those things which are imparted by any one; for they turned aside the hooks with nooses, and when they had caught hold of them firmly, drew them on by means of engines, and undermined the mound the more skillfully on this account, because there are in their territories extensive iron mines, and consequently every description of mining operations is known and practiced by them. They had furnished, more over, the whole wall on every side with turrets, and had covered them with skins. Besides, in their frequent sallies by day and night, they attempted either to set fire to the mound, or attack our soldiers when engaged in the works; and, moreover, by splicing the upright timbers of their own towers, they equaled the height of ours, as fast as the mound had daily raised them, and countermined our mines, and impeded the working of them by stakes bent and sharpened at the ends, and boiling pitch and stones of very great weight, and prevented them from approaching the walls. But this is usually the form of all the Gallic walls. Straight beams, connected lengthwise and two feet distant from each other at equal intervals, are placed together on the ground; these are mortised on the inside, and covered with plenty of earth. But the intervals which we have mentioned, are closed up in front by large stones. These being thus laid and cemented together, another row is added above, in such a manner, that the same interval may be observed, and that the beams may not touch one another, but equal spaces intervening, each row of beams is kept firmly in its place by a row of stones. In this manner the whole wall is consolidated, until the regular height of the wall be completed. This work, with respect to appearance and variety, is not unsightly, owing to the alternate rows of beams and stones, which preserve their order in right lines; and, besides, it possesses great advantages as regards utility and the defense of cities; for the stone protects it from fire, and the wood from the battering ram, since it, the wood, being mortised in the inside with rows of beams, generally forty feet each in length, can neither be broken through nor torn asunder".

Vercingetorix, like any good politician, used the defeat to his advantage. He convinced his leaders that the Romans had siege skill that he couldn't counter and that he was right all along about abandoning and burning Avaricum. It just took 40,000 dead to prove it, a pointless waste that the Gallic chiefs must have been embarrassed about. So it centralized Vercingetorix's authority. Caesar noting this, must of realized he was up against no ordinary Gaul. And this defeat brought more tribes under Vercingetorix. Caesar, finding much corn for his army at Avaricum, which wouldn't have happened if the Gauls abandoned it, rests for a few days. He himself says spring is arriving only now. By saying this, accurate judgments of time can be made. Anyway Caesar had another problem. Ambassadors from the Aedui tribe, Caesar's and the Romans' best friends in Gaul, tell him of near revolutionary conditions in their lands. Their government was split on the situation in Gaul. Caesar realized that he had to keep these people on his side. He asked them to give him all their cavalry and 10,000 infantry. In reward they would receive much booty from the Roman conquest. Caesar takes the risk of splitting his force. He gives 4 legions and some cavalry to Labienus, to take to the north central region. Caesar with 6 legions and the other cavalry, heads towards Gergovia. Vercingetorix takes his army towards Caesar. He breaks down the bridges in the region to delay Caesar. Early in July, (mid to late April) Caesar and his army reach the Allier river. Vercingetorix is camped right across from them. Caesar couldn't build a bridge here since the enemy was so close and the river was swelled with spring runoff. So he decided to trick Vercingetorix so he could cross the river by rebuilding another bridge. Getting his men across, Vercingetorix retreated.