The Rubicon

It seems that the Tribunes Antonius (Mark Antony), and Quintus Cassius Longinus, joined Caesar near the Rubicon before he crossed. The day was likely January 10. The two men traveled swiftly, but discreetly, the 240+ miles from Rome. This would take them at least 3 days. They of course told Caesar about what happened. This was the pretext Caesar needed. Supporting the rights of the Tribunes of the people of Rome against the evil men who hid behind the name of the Republic. Who could counter that? His men believed him. Caesar decided that his next move should be bold and quick, to knock the enemy off guard. Why wait and plan a hard fight when you can simply scare. So sometime between January 11 and 15 (most likely 11 or 12), Caesar decided to march on Ariminum. This was the first major city on the coast of Italy. He sent word to his other legions to come immediately. At the city Caesar further encouraged his men. The day before the crossing Caesar had told one of his commanders, Hortensius, to take some men, carrying only swords, to take Ariminum. Caesar himself spent the day watching gladiators train. At sundown he was eating and decided it was time to go. He asked some guests to wait for him to return, others he had secretly asked to follow him later. Caesar got a mule drawn carriage to take him to the cohorts waiting at the Rubicon. It seems he got lost in the dark, but found his way back by sunrise. All accounts state that Caesar waited and contemplated the consequences of this action. Suddenly he arose and said to his men behind him, "Even yet we may draw back; but once across that little bridge, and the whole issue is with the sword." He also said, "Take we the course which the signs of the gods and the false dealing of our foes point out." Then he muttered the infamous phrase, from the work of the poet Menander, in Greek, "Anerriphtho kubos," the Latin "Alea iacta est", "Let the die be cast." Sometimes this is said as "Let the dice fly high." Caesar then crossed the small stream with his men. By the time the sun was up, Caesar had taken Ariminum. News of this likely reached Rome by the evening of January 17. Pompey left that night. The next day people from the country overran Rome and the magistrates (as well as the consuls) abandoned the city. Cicero says that he's helpless.

Now what was the real date of all this? Well Caesar hadn't done his calendar-adjusting job very well. It seems he hadn't sent orders to add the extra 28 days to the calendar since the mid 50's BC. So the real date of crossing the Rubicon was likely in November. Pompey had already put the 2 legions he got from Caesar in winter quarters. Calculating the calendar is difficult. It isn't just subtracting a set number of days from "their" calendar to "ours" (i.e. Roman-Republican to Julian). The number of days to drop is almost impossible to calculate with certainty due to the lack of historical information. The days for each month then was different from ours as well. January, April, June, August, September, November, and December had 29 days each. March, May, July, and October had 31 days each. February then, as now, was the wild card. It was originally the end of the year and therefore the easiest month to play with. The Romans decided to give it 28 days. But in the end this amounted to a calendar of 355 days. The solar year is just a little shorter than 365.25 days (365.242). So the Romans fixed this shortage by installing a intercalens month, called Mercedonius. This month had either 27 or 28 days. The month was supposed to be installed every 2 years. Giving the month 28 days every second time was the Roman equivalent of us adding February 29 every 4 years. So why 27 or 28 days? That makes the year too long. The Romans put this month between February 23 and 24. They dropped the remaining days of February. This made a calendar year that was 366.25 days long. 1 day too long but close enough, for them anyway. The intercalens month was supposed to be forgotten every 20th year to make up for the 1 extra day. The Calendar was handled by the Roman college of Pontifices. Caesar was Pontifex Maximus, like a Pope of Roman religion. The reasons for their decisions were kept secret. This would indicate that it was subject to political corruption from some point. It didn't help that the Romans switched the beginning of the year to January 1 in 153 BC. Earlier it had been March 1. The intercalens could be "forgotten about" or "remembered in the wrong year" when the Pontifex Maximus was approached by a shifty magistrate who wanted his term extended, or another's ended. So the calendar was rarely an absolute. If the dropping of the 20th intercalens was forgotten a few times over a great length of time, people may simply not have noticed. People of ancient times rarely reached the age of 50. So the calendar may have just drifted due to the overcomplicating of adjustment over long lengths of time, and then later pure corruption. Sometimes we are lucky and there are records of eclipses that we can back check using mathematics. In 400 BC there was a solar eclipse at Rome on June 21. The Calendar called it June 5, 16 days early. So the calendar around now was kind of close. But by 190 BC an eclipse of March 14 was called early July (11th) by Livy, 4 months too much. Also the Romans liked March 1 as the start of the year. It is possible that the Romans didn't like the start to be January 1.

So Caesar's legions were quick to travel to Italy. It would be the first winter out of Gaul for 9 years for some. Tough choice? Not likely. These troops were rich from the sale of almost 1 million slaves. That is probably what most of Caesar's legions were doing in 50 BC. Spending this money in Italy was the preferred choice.

But you can't enjoy your wealth much if your considered a public enemy along with your General. So why did Caesar's men follow him. At the Rubicon he addressed the 13th legion with the basic statement:

"of the wrongs done to him (Caesar) at all times by his enemies (senators), and complained that Pompey had been alienated from him and led astray by them through envy and a malicious opposition to his glory, though he had always favored and promoted Pompey's honor and dignity. He complained that an innovation had been introduced into the republic, that the intercession of the tribunes, which had been restored a few years before by Sulla, was branded as a crime, and suppressed by force of arms; that Sulla, who had stripped the tribunes of every other power, had, nevertheless, left the privilege of intercession unrestrained; that Pompey, who pretended to restore what they had lost, had taken away the privileges which they formerly had; that whenever the senate decreed, 'that the magistrates should take care that the republic sustained no injury' (by which words and decree the Roman people were obliged to repair to arms), it was only when pernicious laws were proposed; when the tribunes attempted violent measures; when the people seceded, and possessed themselves of the temples and eminences of the city; (and these instances of former times, he showed them were expiated by the fate of Saturninus and the Gracchi): that nothing of this kind was attempted now, nor even thought of: that no law was promulgated, no intrigue with the people going forward, no secession made; he exhorted them to defend from the malice of his enemies the reputation and honor of that general under whose command they had for nine years most successfully supported the state; fought many successful battles, and subdued all Gaul and Germany." (Book 1.7 On The Civil War)

Pompey sent word to Caesar that he respected him and didn't want things to get too far out of hand. Pompey understood that Caesar could certainly destroy the Republic. Caesar sent a message to Pompey: that the state had only tried to ruin him by stripping him of half a years command, stealing 2 of his legions and keeping them in Italy, stealing his right to run in "absentia" for the consulship, and that Pompey and himself were denied the chance to lay down their commands jointly. Caesar offered Pompey the chance for a one-on-one interview to settle everything. The message was sent off to Capua to Pompey and the Consuls. They sent a message back to Caesar that he return to Gaul, disband his army, then Pompey would go to Spain and do the same. Certainly they took Caesar as a foolish, naive madman. Caesar stayed in Ariminum with 2 legions, sent Mark Antony to Arretium with 5 cohorts, and secured Pisaurus, Fanum, and Ancona, with a cohort each. So much for negotiations.

And so much for Republican resistance. The Praetor Thermus was at the town of Iguvium with 5 cohorts. These men abandoned Thermus on the road on the approach of 3 cohorts of Caesar. Attius Varus was at Auximum. The men of that town told him that they preferred Caesar to him. Varus left and his men fled either home or to Caesar, who was approaching with the 13th legion. Caesar was very pleased with Auximum and its people. This had all happened in a period of 3 or 4 days. News of these movements and the crossing of the Rubicon caused the Consuls to flee, without taking the treasury. Big mistake. Now it was January 18. The 12th legion now showed up and Caesar marched with it and the 13th to Asculum, the chief town of Picenum. Lentulus Spinther occupied that town with ten cohorts. All it took was word of Caesar's approach for the men to again desert their commander. But real resistance could be led by Domitius Aenobarbus, the Senate's choice to relieve Caesar's command in Gaul, who had about 30 cohorts from Pompey at Corfinium. Caesar stayed at Asculum for a day to feed his men and marched on Corfinium. Domitius sent 5 cohorts to destroy a bridge to slow Caesar. Caesar's scouts beat them off and back into the city. Caesar camped his men outside the city walls. Corfinium doesn't exist today, but its ruins are on the east of the Apennines, due east of Rome. It was the headquarters of the Italians who fought Rome during the Social war when Caesar was a boy. The country here is narrow and Caesar could be pinned here by Pompey. Domitius asked Pompey for help. By now other legions of Caesar began to arrive. Caesar sent 5 cohorts under Antony to take the town of Sulmo, modern Sulmona, 7 miles away. 7 cohorts held the town. When Antony arrived the Republican commanders Attius and Quintus Lucretius jumped off the walls. Attius begged that he be brought to Caesar. Attius was pardoned and the 7 cohorts joined Caesar. He was building his own camp outside Corfinium. Within 3 days the 8th legion and 22 new cohorts from Gaul joined him. The king of Norcium (modern Austria) sent 300 cavalry to Caesar.

Domitius got back word from Pompey. Pompey said in as many words that Domitius was a fool for trapping himself in Corfinium. Domitius tried to fool his troops as to his and Pompey's plans. In the end the soldiers realized what was going on. Caesar played politics masterfully during the siege. It seems he wanted to convince the magistrates there, without violence, that Caesar's cause was the right one. The town soon surrendered and Domitius was captured. By now it was mid February, perhaps February 21. Pompey knew now that Italy had to be abandoned. Pompey's plan seems to be that he would gather support in the east were he fought before, while his Spanish legions would keep Caesar from returning to Gaul. Nice plan but logistically impossible. Caesar had Italy in his hands, that's what mattered. But if Pompey had control of the sea, Italy would be slowly starved. Pompey marched straight for Brundisium with the consuls. Pompey had to do this quickly, delay would be suicidal. But if he did and fought Caesar in Italy, history might be different. Caesar marched quickly to stop him. Pompey got the consuls across to Dyrrhachium with most of his army. He still had 20 cohorts with him. Caesar had 6 legions now, 4 of them veterans. The men who joined him from Domitius were sent to Sicily under Curio, who followed later as Propraetor. Caesar arrived at Brundisium in the first days of March. He tried again to deal with Pompey, but he refused. Pompey brilliantly delayed Caesar in taking Brundisium. Caesar tried to block the harbor with ships and causeways, but Pompey broke through. On the night of March 17, Pompey escaped with Caesar, aided by the people of the city, rushing to the shore. Caesar could see the ships sailing away, with Pompey aboard. Pompey managed to get all the transports in Italy for himself. Caesar now had a choice, wait for next spring and ships from Gaul and Gibraltar and risk losing Transalpine Gaul and Cisalpine Gaul, or march to Spain and defeat legions without a leader. Caesar decided on the latter. Smart choice. He had to, since Titus Labienus, his former lieutenant, now governor of Cisalpine Gaul, abandoned Caesar for Pompey. Caesar now sent Curio to Sicily with 3 legions, and Valerius with 1 legion to Sardinia. These 2 groups found the territories deserted by their pro-republican governors. Marcus Porcius Cato was now governor of Sicily and went to Africa, where Attius Varus had fled and assumed the governorship and raised 2 legions. Cato wasn't happy that Pompey had abandoned him. Cicero wasn't either. Pompey hadn't even contacted the Republicans before he fled Brundisium. Caesar now had to go to Rome. He headed towards there in late March, meeting with Cicero in Formiae on March 28. Caesar wanted Cicero on his side, but the diehard republican couldn't agree with Caesar. Cicero wrote to his friend Atticus that Caesar wouldn't accommodate, as he wanted things to return to normal. He didn't want Caesar to fight in Spain or chase Pompey in Greece. Caesar had the opinion that "those who don't agree with me, leave now, war allows no free talking." This is what he would say in Rome. He arrived there on about March 30. He hadn't been there since March 58 BC, 9 years earlier.

In Rome, Caesar certainly didn't expect the welcome of a conquering hero. His intentions to many seemed unclear. Would he be a Sulla, or a Marius even? No, he only wanted to affirm his right to run for the Consulship. He wanted no special honor (at this time anyway), and to get who was left in Rome to help him. Caesar would only have support from several men of the former senate on his side. But the visit to Rome by Caesar made him more to be a hypocrite than what he said. Pompey in his flight, hadn't got the treasury moved to safety (from Caesar). Caesar needed this money, for his use of course, but to keep it from his and potential enemies. But the Tribune Lucius Caecilius Metellus, forbid Caesar to enter the vault under the temple of Saturn. When the keys were "missing", Caesar had some made and his soldiers ensured no one got in the way. The tribune tries, no luck. Caesar said he would execute him. The tribune now obeyed Caesar. The rights of the tribunes now seemed official in name only. Caesar took 15,000 bars of gold, twice as much silver, and 30,000,000 Sesterces. Caesar, having spent less than a week in Rome, left for Spain to, as he said,

"I go to meet an army without a leader, and I shall return to meet a leader without an army."

Caesar arrived at Massilia on April 19. He had 3 legions with him. Caesar had 12 ships built on the Rhone river in 30 days. He sent Gaius Fabius and 3 other legions from Narbo to secure the passes in the Pyrenees. Other legions were to follow Fabius. Fabius quickly drove out the Republican garrison in the passes. The 12 ships for Massilia were given to Decimius Brutus, Gaius Trebonius was to command the siege, which would last into October. Back in Spain, in June (Late March by season), Fabius was now outnumbered and out of supplies. On one foraging expedition, one of the 2 bridges he built over a nearby river, collapsed from the weight of the cattle pulling supplies. The 2 legions were separated from their cavalry. Petreius and Afranius, who had joined forces to fight Fabius, now had their golden opportunity. If they could defeat 2 of Caesar's legions here, Caesar might be forced to abandon Spain. But the commander of Fabius' legions, Lucius Plancus, wouldn't let down his General. Outnumbered 2 to 1, with no horse, he split his force and put it on the high ground. Petreius and Afranius charged at the Caesarian legions but couldn't drive them off. Then (according only to Caesar) 2 other legions, sent by Fabius, crossed the second bridge and approached the battle. The fighting stopped. What is likely is that the vanguard of the other legions approached and Pompey's men got cold feet. Fabius lost many men. It was now early July, by the calendar.

Caesar had put the money he took from Rome to good use. He gave much to his army, they had been fighting in the winter after all. Leaving the siege of Massilia to Decimus Brutus, Caesar himself quickly sped to Spain with a guard of 900 cavalry. Arriving and taking command of the situation, he marched his army to Ilerda, south of the Pyrenees. He offered Afranius battle, but Afranius chickened out. Caesar began building fortifications, ignoring the enemy's offer of battle. Caesar surrounded them on a hill, (Caesar was so lucky this way) and dug a 15 foot wide trench and put men in it. For 2 days Caesar kept Afranius at bay, but had to cut him off. So he tried to take a rise on a plain nearby, but his troops had trouble keeping control when fighting the other side. These Spanish serving troops had adopted strange methods of fighting, and Caesar's men would chase them too far onto unfavorable ground. The cavalry wasn't much help either on this terrain. Caesar's men charged up the hill to fight. Caesar lost 70 men, Afranius 200. Both sides thought they had the better end. But now Caesar had real trouble. Spring/summer floods had washed away the bridges, trapping him and cutting off supply from Gaul. Afranius attacked Caesar's supply line and drove off Gallic cavalry. Caesar had his men build ships and hauled them 22 miles away to the river and got some troops across. He had to get supplies moving. Unlike himself, Afranius' men had plenty of food. Caesar built a bridge in 2 days and then hears that Decimius Brutus has defeated nine ships at Massilia. Caesar now had more luck. 5 tribes joined his side: the Oscenses Calagurritani, Tarraconenses, Jacetani, and Ausetani, and in a few days more by the Illurgavonenses. He now had his cavalry, which held off the enemy easily, and he heard rumors that Pompey had tried to march through north Africa to Spain, but failed. In fact, messages were sent to Pompey, via Rome, that Caesar was near defeat in Spain. But now Caesar was gaining the edge. He was trying to divert the nearby river, and managed to force Afranius and Petreius to retreat further into Spain (Celtiberia). He caught up with them with his horse and found a ford in the river to get his troops across. He sent his best men across. The rear of Afranius and Petreius' line was suffering from the cavalry attacks. Caesar's infantry begged him to let them help. But crossing the river Segre took all day and Caesar wouldn't fight with tired men. Afranius and Petreius camped in the hills and argued about marching at night to escape Caesar and get to the Ebro river and the new bridge built there. But they believed that Caesar was watching them at night and risking a night battle with Caesar wasn't as good as risking to fight him in daylight. Caesar had, the night before, shouted an advance when Afranius and Petreius tried to leave at night. The next day when Caesar appeared to move north-east in retreat, Afranius and Petreius were exalted. But when Caesar turned and began to outflank their camp, Afranius and Petreius practically ran with their men towards the Ebro. But Caesar managed to surround Afranius and Petreius with his cavalry and got his infantry into a favorable position. But Caesar wanted to starve the enemy to surrender now. All supply lines were under Caesar's control. Caesar's men begged for battle, but Caesar wouldn't risk anyone. Afranius and Petreius tried to secure a hill with 4 cohorts with light Spanish auxiliaries. Caesar's horse slaughtered them. The next day, Afranius and Petreius went to secure water supplies and their own soldiers went to talk to Caesar's. They were very grateful there was no fighting. Petreius would have none of this. He fled back to camp and drove out Caesar's men. He killed several, then got the troops to take an oath to Pompey. Eventually they all took the oath, but released the rest of Caesar's men at night. No surrender yet.

Over the next few days, Caesar fought Afranius and Petreius while on the march. Afranius and Petreius were now running out of food. They soon slaughtered their pack animals for food. Caesar now was winning, and hemming in the enemy with new siegeworks. Pompey's generals tried to give Caesar battle, but Caesar would not make the first move. After several more days, no one had food, even the animals still alive. Not even wood for fires. Afranius and Petreius now asked for a private meeting with Caesar. But Caesar insisted on the meeting being public. Both sides could hear what was said. Afranius said that Caesar should show mercy since he'd obeyed Pompey to the ultimate end. Caesar was magnanimous in his response. In the end he offered that Afranius and Petreius should disband their 5 legions. These men were most glad to here this. Those that had land in Spain were released immediately, the rest at the river Var in several more days. It was now August 2.

Now while this happened, Gaius Trebonius was still laying siege to Massilia. Caesar had ordered the town not to be taken by storm. So a long siege with many fights at the city walls and in the harbors were needed. The Romans won the sea fights but had problems at the walls. After having a siege tower destroyed by treachery, after a surrender, the Romans took up the siege again and forced the city to surrender again. The whole siege lasted 6 months. Caesar now headed out to further Spain, his old province. He had to deal with Marcus Varro. We hear that he was a good friend of Caesar. Nonetheless, Caesar knew that Varro had to do his duty to Pompey, and that he'd do what he'd could. Caesar sent in 2 legions to further Spain under the Tribune Quintus Cassius Longinus. Varro had made some preparations, mainly to escape with the money and troops. He made the mistake of alienating the locals by lying to them when Caesar was fighting in Hither (nearer) Spain. He said Caesar was losing. Caesar himself sped to Corduba with 600 cavalry to make sure of his position to all. Issuing a proclamation to meet him, Varro lost all alliance. He now tried to march his men to Gades (Cadiz) and escape in new ships. But Varro's men in one of his legions defected at Gades. The citizens and local inhabitants of Spain clearly favored Caesar. Caesar was very grateful to them. He cut their taxes. Varro sent word that he would come to Caesar at Corduba and surrender his men and supplies. There he turned over his money, command, and locations of food supplies. Those soldiers that wanted to joined Caesar's side. The war in Spain was over. It took Caesar only 40 days from arriving in Spain, chasing down Afranius and Petreius, and to get Marcus Varro to surrender. Word spread fast. Now it was mid August on the calendar.

Caesar spent only 2 days in Corduba. Here he may have experienced his first epileptic fit in public, where before others than his own family wouldn't know of his condition. This may be why he left so quickly. He went to Gades and restored the treasures to the Temple of Hercules. Here, Caesar might have looked again at the statue of Alexander the Great. Caesar turned 51 on July 12/13, 49 BC. It had been 19 years since Caesar first saw the statue and 'cried' a little. Now Caesar might have felt a little pride in knowing that he was certainly on his way. But it would be another year before Caesar would meet his Darius. Here Caesar made Cassius governor of Spain with 4 legions. Taking Varro's new ships, he sailed to Tarraco. After meeting with officials there, he traveled by land to Massilia via Narbo. Caesar seems to have got there when the city had been captured or just before. Lucius Domitius had escaped in his ship a few days earlier. Caesar spared the town, but stripped the rights the people had earlier lived with. Caesar stationed 2 legions there. The other legions were sent to Italy, Caesar headed straight for Rome. While at Massilia, at the beginning of October, he was told that the senate had passed a special measure to declare a dictator. The Praetor Marcus Lepidus nominated Caesar, and was quickly made dictator. He was given what Pompey had tried for years to coax out of the state. Caesar headed for Rome, probably in no big hurry. But still he was no real hero, yet!

Caesar as dictator held the consular elections. He was elected consul for 48 BC along with Publius Servilius Isauricus, son of his old commander. With the next year's government secure Caesar spent only 11 days as dictator. He gave a citizenship extension to his supporters in Cisalpine Gaul, tried to solve the debt problem in Italy by eliminating some interest payments due to creditors. But in more pressing matters there were those who tried to get Caesar to end the war. Caesar's father-in-law Calpurnius Piso tried to get Caesar to settle with Pompey, but Servilius Isauricus was quick to convince Caesar against it. Caesar also restored the family members of those who were banished under Sulla. Caesar celebrated the Latin festival at Mons Albanus (Monte Cavo), in the Alban Hills near Rome. After his resigning the dictatorship, he gathered his troops, 12 legions and all the cavalry, in the midst of winter (late December on the calendar) to march to Brundisium. In Plutarch's life of Caesar, we here that Caesar is beginning to push his men beyond even Roman endurance. His men complain of the conditions under which they are enduring. The winter of 49/48 BC seems to have been a very cold and stormy one. But Caesar quickly rode ahead to the city to meet troops already there. Caesar was unhappy with the amount of ships available at Brundisium for transport. Caesar also would have known about the disaster in Africa during the summer/autumn of 49. His former tribune, Gaius Scribonius Curio, had invaded Africa from Sicily with only 2 of the 4 legions he had. The republicans in Africa had superior numbers and allied with Numidia's king Juba. Curio had no real chance and was killed in battle on August 24, 49 BC not to disgrace Caesar by surrender.

Now in 48 BC Caesar, consul and arriving in Brundisium, addressed his men that the end of their toil was near. The troops seemed to have regained some faith in Caesar. On January 4, Caesar and 7 legions sailed across the Ionian sea to the coast of Epirus, arriving the next day. Now Caesar sent the ships back to get the other 5 legions and the cavalry. But the ships were to be intercepted by the superior republican navy and 30 of them burned. Since Caesar had not brought any supplies, he was in a terrible spot. The other towns in the area were besieged by republicans to keep them from aiding Caesar. One such town was Salona. The local republican army didn't have much stomach for a siege with winter approaching (it was really November by season). The siege commander, Marcus Octavius, fled back to Pompey. Pompey's position couldn't be better. 11 legions were on his side, 4000+ auxiliaries, and 7000 cavalry (400 from Gaul). He also had the entire east to draw upon for money and supplies. Why did he lose? We shall see.