Bibliographic Record Frontmatter
ITHACA, N.Y.: W.P. HUMPHREY, 1918
NEW
YORK: BARTLEBY.COM, 1999
This book is intended for use in English courses in which the practice of
composition is combined with the study of literature. It aims to give in brief
space the principal requirements of plain English style. It aims to lighten the
task of instructor and student by concentrating attention (in Chapters II and
III) on a few essentials, the rules of usage and principles of composition most
commonly violated. The numbers of the sections may be used as references in
correcting manuscript.
The book covers only a small portion of the field of English style, but the
experience of its writer has been that once past the essentials, students profit
most by individual instruction based on the problems of their own work, and that
each instructor has his own body of theory, which he prefers to that offered by
any textbook.
The writer's colleagues in the Department of English in Cornell University
have greatly helped him in the preparation of his manuscript. Mr. George McLane
Wood has kindly consented to the inclusion under Rule 11 of some material from
his Suggestions to Authors.
The following books are recommended for reference or further study: in
connection with Chapters II and IV, F. Howard Collins, Author and Printer
(Henry Frowde); Chicago University Press, Manual of Style; T. L. De Vinne
Correct Composition (The Century Company); Horace Hart, Rules for Compositors
and Printers (Oxford University Press); George McLane Wood, Extracts from
the Style-Book of the Government Printing Office (United States Geological
Survey); in connection with Chapters III and V, Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, The
Art of Writing (Putnams), especially the chapter, Interlude on Jargon;
George McLane Wood, Suggestions to Authors (United States Geological
Survey); John Leslie Hall, English Usage (Scott, Foresman and Co.); James
P. Kelly, Workmanship in Words (Little, Brown and Co.).
It is an old observation that the best writers sometimes disregard the rules
of rhetoric. When they do so, however, the reader will usually find in the
sentence some compensating merit, attained at the cost of the violation. Unless
he is certain of doing as well, he will probably do best to follow the rules.
After he has learned, by their guidance, to write plain English adequate for
everyday uses, let him look, for the secrets of style, to the study of the
masters of literature.
Follow this rule whatever the final consonant. Thus write,
This is the usage of the United States Government Printing Office and of
the Oxford University Press.
Exceptions are the possessives of ancient proper names in -es and
-is, the possessive Jesus', and such forms as for conscience'
sake, for righteousness' sake. But such forms as Achilles' heel, Moses'
laws, Isis' temple are commonly replaced by
The pronominal possessives hers, its, theirs, yours, and
oneself have no apostrophe.
Thus write,
This is also the usage of the Government Printing Office and of the Oxford
University Press.
In the names of business firms the last comma is omitted, as
The abbreviation etc., even if
only a single term comes before it, is always preceded by a comma.
This rule is difficult to apply; it is frequently hard to decide whether a
single word, such as however, or a
brief phrase, is or is not parenthetic. If the interruption to the flow of the
sentence is but slight, the writer may safely omit the commas. But whether the
interruption be slight or considerable, he must never omit one comma and leave
the other. Such punctuation as
or
is indefensible.
Non-restrictive relative clauses are, in accordance with this rule, set off
by commas.
Similar clauses introduced by where and when are similarly
punctuated.
In these sentences the clauses introduced by which, when, and
where are non-restrictive; they do not limit the application of the
words on which they depend, but add, parenthetically, statements supplementing
those in the principal clauses. Each sentence is a combination of two
statements which might have been made independently.
Restrictive relative clauses are not set off by commas.
In this sentence the relative clause restricts the application of the word
candidate to a single person. Unlike those above, the sentence cannot
be split into two independent statements.
The abbreviations etc. and
jr. are always preceded by a comma, and except at the end of a
sentence, followed by one.
Similar in principle to the enclosing of parenthetic expressions between
commas is the setting off by commas of phrases or dependent clauses preceding
or following the main clause of a sentence. The sentences quoted in this
section and under Rules 4, 5, 6, 7, 16, and 18 should afford
sufficient guidance.
If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction, place the first
comma before the conjunction, not after it.
Sentences of this type, isolated from their context, may seem to be in need
of rewriting. As they make complete sense when the comma is reached, the
second clause has the appearance of an after-thought. Further, and, is
the least specific of connectives. Used between independent clauses, it
indicates only that a relation exists between them without defining that
relation. In the example above, the relation is that of cause and result. The
two sentences might be rewritten:
Or the subordinate clauses might be replaced by phrases:
But a writer may err by making his sentences too uniformly compact and
periodic, and an occasional loose sentence prevents the style from becoming
too formal and gives the reader a certain relief. Consequently, loose
sentences of the type first quoted are common in easy, unstudied writing. But
a writer should be careful not to construct too many of his sentences after
this pattern (see Rule 14).
Two-part sentences of which the second member is introduced by as
(in the sense of because), for, or, nor, and while (in
the sense of and at the same time) likewise require a comma before the
conjunction.
If a dependent clause, or an introductory phrase requiring to be set off by
a comma, precedes the second independent clause, no comma is needed after the
conjunction.
For two-part sentences connected by an adverb, see the next section.
If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and not joined by a
conjunction, are to form a single compound sentence, the proper mark of
punctuation is a semicolon.
It is of course equally correct to write the above as two sentences each,
replacing the semicolons by periods.
If a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma (Rule 4).
Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb, such as
accordingly, besides, so, then, therefore, or thus, and not by a
conjunction, the semicolon is still required.
In general, however, it is best, in writing, to avoid using so in
this manner; there is danger that the writer who uses it at all may use it too
often. A simple correction, usually serviceable, is to omit the word
so, and begin the first clause with as:
If the clauses are very short, and are alike in form, a comma is usually
permissible:
In other words, do not use periods for commas.
In both these examples, the first period should be replaced by a comma, and
the following word begun with a small letter.
It is permissible to make an emphatic word or expression serve the purpose
of a sentence and to punctuate it accordingly:
The writer must, however, be certain that the emphasis is warranted, and
that he will not be suspected of a mere blunder in punctuation.
Rules 3, 4, 5, and 6 cover the most
important principles in the punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be
so thoroughly mastered that their application becomes second nature.
The word walking refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the
woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must recast the
sentence:
Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by a preposition, nouns in
apposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases come under the same rule if they
begin the sentence.
Sentences violating this rule are often ludicrous.
If there is room at the end of a line for one or more syllables of a word,
but not for the whole word, divide the word, unless this involves cutting off
only a single letter, or cutting off only two letters of a long word. No hard
and fast rule for all words can be laid down. The principles most frequently
applicable are:
The treatment of consonants in combination is best shown from examples:
The student will do well to examine the syllable-division in a number of
pages of any carefully printed book.
If the subject on which you are writing is of slight extent, or if you
intend to treat it very briefly, there may be no need of subdividing it into
topics. Thus a brief description, a brief summary of a literary work, a brief
account of a single incident, a narrative merely outlining an action, the
setting forth of a single idea, any one of these is best written in a single
paragraph. After the paragraph has been written, it should be examined to see
whether subdivision will not improve it.
Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision into topics, each of
which should be made the subject of a paragraph. The object of treating each
topic in a paragraph by itself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning
of each paragraph is a signal to him that a new step in the development of the
subject has been reached.
The extent of subdivision will vary with the length of the composition. For
example, a short notice of a book or poem might consist of a single paragraph.
One slightly longer might consist of two paragraphs:
A report on a poem, written for a class in literature, might consist of
seven paragraphs:
The contents of paragraphs C and D would vary with the poem. Usually,
paragraph C would indicate the actual or imagined circumstances of the poem
(the situation), if these call for explanation, and would then state the
subject and outline its development. If the poem is a narrative in the third
person throughout, paragraph C need contain no more than a concise summary of
the action. Paragraph D would indicate the leading ideas and show how they are
made prominent, or would indicate what points in the narrative are chiefly
emphasized.
A novel might be discussed under the heads:
A historical event might be discussed under the heads:
In treating either of these last two subjects, the writer would probably
find it necessary to subdivide one or more of the topics here given.
As a rule, single sentences should not be written or printed as paragraphs.
An exception may be made of sentences of transition, indicating the relation
between the parts of an exposition or argument.
In dialogue, each speech, even if only a single word, is a paragraph by
itself; that is, a new paragraph begins with each change of speaker. The
application of this rule, when dialogue and narrative are combined, is best
learned from examples in well-printed works of fiction.
Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice here recommended
enables him to discover the purpose of each paragraph as he begins to read it,
and to retain the purpose in mind as he ends it. For this reason, the most
generally useful kind of paragraph, particularly in exposition and argument,
is that in which
Ending with a digression, or with an unimportant detail, is particularly to
be avoided.
If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, its relation to what
precedes, or its function as a part of the whole, may need to be expressed.
This can sometimes be done by a mere word or phrase (again; therefore; for
the same reason) in the topic sentence. Sometimes, however, it is
expedient to precede the topic sentence by one or more sentences of
introduction or transition. If more than one such sentence is required, it is
generally better to set apart the transitional sentences as a separate
paragraph.
According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicated above, relate the
body of the paragraph to the topic sentence in one or more of several
different ways. He may make the meaning of the topic sentence clearer by
restating it in other forms, by defining its terms, by denying the converse,
by giving illustrations or specific instances; he may establish it by proofs;
or he may develop it by showing its implications and consequences. In a long
paragraph, he may carry out several of these processes.
In narration and description the paragraph sometimes begins with a concise,
comprehensive statement serving to hold together the details that follow.
But this device, if too often used, would become a mannerism. More commonly
the opening sentence simply indicates by its subject with what the paragraph
is to be principally concerned.
The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, are often without even
this semblance of a topic sentence. The break between them serves the purpose
of a rhetorical pause, throwing into prominence some detail of the action.
The active voice is usually more direct and vigorous than the passive:
This is much better than
The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and less concise. If the
writer tries to make it more concise by omitting "by me,"
it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some person undisclosed, or the
world at large, that will always remember this visit?
This rule does not, of course, mean that the writer should entirely discard
the passive voice, which is frequently convenient and sometimes necessary.
The first would be the right form in a paragraph on the dramatists of the
Restoration; the second, in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers. The
need of making a particular word the subject of the sentence will often, as in
these examples, determine which voice is to be used.
The habitual use of the active voice, however, makes for forcible writing.
This is true not only in narrative principally concerned with action, but in
writing of any kind. Many a tame sentence of description or exposition can be
made lively and emphatic by substituting a transitive in the active voice for
some such perfunctory expression as there is, or could be heard.
As a rule, avoid making one passive depend directly upon another.
In both the examples above, before correction, the word properly related to
the second passive is made the subject of the first.
A common fault is to use as the subject of a passive construction a noun
which expresses the entire action, leaving to the verb no function beyond that
of completing the sentence.
Compare the sentence, "The export of gold was prohibited," in which the
predicate "was prohibited" expresses something not implied in "export."
Make definite assertions. Avoid tame, colorless, hesitating, non-committal
language. Use the word not as a means of denial or in antithesis, never
as a means of evasion.
The last example, before correction, is indefinite as well as negative. The
corrected version, consequently, is simply a guess at the writer's intention.
All three examples show the weakness inherent in the word not.
Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfied with being told only
what is not; he wishes to be told what is. Hence, as a rule, it is better to
express a negative in positive form.
The antithesis of negative and positive is strong:
Negative words other than not are usually strong:
Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary
words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a
drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts.
This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he
avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word
tell.
Many expressions in common use violate this principle:
In especial the expression the fact that should be revised out of
every sentence in which it occurs.
See also under case, character, nature, system in Chapter V.
Who is, which was, and the like are often superfluous.
As positive statement is more concise than negative, and the active voice
more concise than the passive, many of the examples given under Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this
rule as well.
A common violation of conciseness is the presentation of a single complex
idea, step by step, in a series of sentences which might to advantage be
combined into one.
This rule refers especially to loose sentences of a particular type, those
consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the second introduced by a conjunction
or relative. Although single sentences of this type may be unexceptionable
(see under Rule 4), a series soon
becomes monotonous and tedious.
An unskillful writer will sometimes construct a whole paragraph of
sentences of this kind, using as connectives and, but, and less
frequently, who, which, when, where, and while, these last in
non-restrictive senses (see under Rule 3).
Apart from its triteness and emptiness, the paragraph above is bad because
of the structure of its sentences, with their mechanical symmetry and
sing-song. Contrast with them the sentences in the paragraphs quoted under
Rule 10, or in
any piece of good English prose, as the preface (Before the Curtain) to
Vanity Fair.
If the writer finds that he has written a series of sentences of the type
described, he should recast enough of them to remove the monotony, replacing
them by simple sentences, by sentences of two clauses joined by a semicolon,
by periodic sentences of two clauses, by sentences, loose or periodic, of
three clauses--whichever best represent the real relations of the thought.
This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of
similar content and function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form
enables the reader to recognize more readily the likeness of content and
function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the Ten Commandments, the
Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's Prayer.
The unskilful writer often violates this principle, from a mistaken belief
that he should constantly vary the form of his expressions. It is true that in
repeating a statement in order to emphasize it he may have need to vary its
form. For illustration, see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted under Rule 10. But apart from
this, he should follow the principle of parallel construction.
The left-hand version gives the impression that the writer is undecided or
timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to
it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice
and abided by it.
By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members
of a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeated
before each term.
Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also;
either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by the
same grammatical construction. Many violations of this rule can be corrected
by rearranging the sentence.
See also the third example under Rule 12 and the last
under Rule 13.
It may be asked, what if a writer needs to express a very large number of
similar ideas, say twenty? Must he write twenty consecutive sentences of the
same pattern? On closer examination he will probably find that the difficulty
is imaginary, that his twenty ideas can be classified in groups, and that he
need apply the principle only within each group. Otherwise he had best avoid
the difficulty by putting his statements in the form of a table.
The position of the words in a sentence is the principal means of showing
their relationship. The writer must therefore, so far as possible, bring
together the words, and groups of words, that are related in thought, and keep
apart those which are not so related.
The subject of a sentence and the principal verb should not, as a rule, be
separated by a phrase or clause that can be transferred to the beginning.
The objection is that the interposed phrase or clause needlessly interrupts
the natural order of the main clause. This objection, however, does not
usually hold when the order is interrupted only by a relative clause or by an
expression in apposition. Nor does it hold in periodic sentences in which the
interruption is a deliberately used means of creating suspense (see examples
under Rule 18).
The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediately after its
antecedent.
If the antecedent consists of a group of words, the relative comes at the
end of the group, unless this would cause ambiguity.
A noun in apposition may come between antecedent and relative, because in
such a combination no real ambiguity can arise.
Modifiers should come, if possible next to the word they modify. If several
expressions modify the same word, they should be so arranged that no wrong
relation is suggested.
In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer should always use the
present tense. In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, he should preferably
use the present, though he may use the past if he prefers. If the summary is
in the present tense, antecedent action should be expressed by the perfect; if
in the past, by the past perfect.
But whichever tense be used in the summary, a past tense in indirect
discourse or in indirect question remains unchanged.
Apart from the exceptions noted, whichever tense the writer chooses, he
should use throughout. Shifting from one tense to the other gives the
appearance of uncertainty and irresolution (compare Rule 15).
In presenting the statements or the thought of some one else, as in
summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer should avoid
intercalating such expressions as "he said," "he stated," "the speaker added,"
"the speaker then went on to say," "the author also thinks," or the like. He
should indicate clearly at the outset, once for all, that what follows is
summary, and then waste no words in repeating the notification.
In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature, summaries of one
kind or another may be indispensable, and for children in primary schools it
is a useful exercise to retell a story in their own words. But in the
criticism or interpretation of literature the writer should be careful to
avoid dropping into summary. He may find it necessary to devote one or two
sentences to indicating the subject, or the opening situation, of the work he
is discussing; he may cite numerous details to illustrate its qualities. But
he should aim to write an orderly discussion supported by evidence, not a
summary with occasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his discussion
includes a number of works, he will as a rule do better not to take them up
singly in chronological order, but to aim from the beginning at establishing
general conclusions.
The proper place for the word, or group of words, which the writer desires
to make most prominent is usually the end of the sentence.
The word or group of words entitled to this position of prominence is
usually the logical predicate, that is, the new element in the
sentence, as it is in the second example.
The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from the prominence which
it gives to the main statement.
The other prominent position in the sentence is the beginning. Any element
in the sentence, other than the subject, becomes emphatic when placed first.
A subject coming first in its sentence may be emphatic, but hardly by its
position alone. In the sentence,
the emphasis upon kings arises largely from its meaning and from the
context. To receive special emphasis, the subject of a sentence must take the
position of the predicate.
The principle that the proper place for what is to be made most prominent
is the end applies equally to the words of a sentence, to the sentences of a
paragraph, and to the paragraphs of a composition.
(When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final
stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis.)
Quotations grammatically in apposition or the direct objects of verbs are
preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks.
Quotations of an entire line, or more, of verse, are begun on a fresh line
and centred, but not enclosed in quotation marks.
Quotations introduced by that are regarded as in indirect discourse
and not enclosed in quotation marks.
Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary origin require no
quotation marks.
The same is true of colloquialisms and slang.
See Wood, Suggestions to Authors, pp. 68-71, and Quiller-Couch,
The Art of Writing, pp. 103-106.
As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing about fashions, music,
painting, and other arts: "an Oriental effect;" "effects in pale green;" "very
delicate effects;" "broad effects;" "subtle effects;" "a charming effect was
produced by." The writer who has a definite meaning to express will not take
refuge in such vagueness.
At the end of a list introduced by such as, for example, or any
similar expression, etc. is incorrect.
On the formula the fact that, see under Rule 13.
As a verb, in the advertising sense of offer as a special
attraction, to be avoided.
When however comes first, it means in whatever way or to
whatever extent.
Less refers to quantity, fewer to number. "His troubles are
less than mine" means "His troubles are not so great as mine." "His troubles
are fewer than mine" means "His troubles are not so numerous as mine." It is,
however, correct to say, "The signers of the petition were less than a
hundred, "where the round number, a hundred, is something like a collective
noun, and less is thought of as meaning a less quantity or amount.
Often vaguely used in such expressions as "a lover of nature;" "poems about
nature." Unless more specific statements follow, the reader cannot tell
whether the poems have to do with natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the
untracked wilderness, or the habits of squirrels.
Not to be used as an adjective; use neighboring.
The word people is not to be used with words of number, in place of
persons. If of "six people" five went away, how many "people" would be
left?
In some kinds of formal writing, as in geometrical proofs, it may be
necessary to use respectively, but it should not appear in writing on
ordinary subjects.
On the use of so to introduce clauses, see Rule 4.
Use he with all the above words, unless the antecedent is or must be
feminine.
Its use as a virtual equivalent of although is allowable in
sentences where this leads to no ambiguity or absurdity.
This is entirely correct, as shown by the paraphrase,
Compare:
The paraphrase,
shows why the use of while is incorrect.
In general, the writer will do well to use while only with strict
literalness, in the sense of during the time that.
The use of worth while before a noun ("a worth while story") is
indefensible.
The equivalent of shall in indirect quotation after a verb in the
past tense is should, not would.
To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense, without
would, is usually sufficient, and from its brevity, more emphatic.
I. INTRODUCTORY
II. ELEMENTARY RULES OF USAGE
Charles's friend
Burns's poems
the witch's malice
the heel of Achilles
the laws of Moses
the temple of Isis
red, white, and blue
honest, energetic, but headstrong
He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its
contents.
Brown, Shipley and Company
The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is
to travel on foot.
Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visit
yesterday,
My brother you will be pleased to hear, is now in perfect
health,
The audience, which had at first been indifferent, became more and
more interested.
In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been
acquired by France.
Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner, is a few miles from
Bridgewater.
The audience was at first indifferent. Later it became more and more
interested.
Napoleon was born in 1769. At that time Corsica had but recently
been acquired by France.
Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner at Nether
Stowey. Nether Stowey is only a few miles from
Bridgewater.
The candidate who best meets these requirements will obtain the
place.
He saw us coming, and unaware that we had learned of his treachery,
greeted us with a smile.
The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its
first years can no longer be reconstructed.
The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of
escape.
As the early records of the city have disappeared, the story of its
first years can no longer be reconstructed.
Although the situation is perilous, there is still one chance of
escape.
Owing to the disappearance of the early records of the city, the
story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed.
In this perilous situation, there is still one chance of
escape.
The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to act promptly,
there is still one chance of escape.
Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before
dark.
Stevenson's romances are entertaining. They are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before
dark.
Stevenson's romances are entertaining, for they are full of exciting
adventures.
It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before
dark.
I had never been in the place before; so I had difficulty in finding
my way about.
As I had never been in the place before, I had difficulty in finding
my way about.
Man proposes, God disposes.
The gate swung apart, the bridge fell, the portcullis was drawn
up.
I met them on a Cunard liner several years ago. Coming home from
Liverpool to New York.
He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the
world, and lived in half a dozen countries.
Again and again he called out. No
reply.
Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two
children.
He saw a woman, accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the
road.
On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him
at the station.
When he arrived (or, On his arrival) in
Chicago, his friends met him at the station.
A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him
with the defence of the city.
A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted
with the defence of the city.
Young and inexperienced, the task seemed easy
to me.
Young and inexperienced, I thought the task
easy.
Without a friend to counsel him, the
temptation proved irresistible.
Without a friend to counsel him, he found the
temptation irresistible.
Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy the house very
cheap.
know-ledge (not knowl-edge); Shake-speare (not Shakes-peare);
de-scribe (not des-cribe); atmo-sphere (not
atmos-phere);
edi-ble (not ed-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial;
reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion (three divisions
possible); deco-rative; presi-dent;
Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; but
tell-ing.
for-tune; pic-ture; presump-tuous; illus-tration; sub-stan-tial
(either division); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion;
incen-diary.
III. ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF COMPOSITION
1 Now, to be
properly enjoyed, a walking tour should be gone upon alone.
1 Topic
sentence.
2 If you go in a
company, or even in pairs, it is no longer a walking tour in anything
but name; it is something else and more in the nature of a picnic.
2 The meaning
made clearer by denial of the contrary.
3 A walking tour
should be gone upon alone, because freedom is of the essence; because
you should be able to stop and go on, and follow this way or that, as
the freak takes you; and because you must have your own pace, and
neither trot alongside a champion walker, nor mince in time with a girl.
3 The topic
sentence repeated, in abridged form, and supported by three reasons; the
meaning of the third ("you must have your own pace") made clearer by
denying the converse.
4 And you must be
open to all impressions and let your thoughts take colour from what you
see.
4 A fourth
reason, stated in two forms.
5 You should be
as a pipe for any wind to play upon.
5 The same
reason, stated in still another form.
6 "I cannot see
the wit," says Hazlitt, "of walking and talking at the same time.
6-7 The same
reason as stated by Hazlitt.
7 When I am in
the country, I wish to vegetate like the country," which is the gist of
all that can be said upon the matter.
8 There should be
no cackle of voices at your elbow, to jar on the meditative silence of
the morning.
8 Repetition, in
paraphrase, of the quotation from Hazlitt.
9 And so long as
a man is reasoning he cannot surrender himself to that fine intoxication
that comes of much motion in the open air, that begins in a sort of
dazzle and sluggishness of the brain, and ends in a peace that passes
comprehension.--Stevenson, Walking Tours.
9 Final statement
of the fourth reason, in language amplified and heightened to form a
strong conclusion.
1 It was chiefly
in the eighteenth century that a very different conception of history
grew up.
1 Topic
sentence.
2 Historians then
came to believe that their task was not so much to paint a picture as to
solve a problem; to explain or illustrate the successive phases of
national growth, prosperity, and adversity.
2 The meaning of
the topic sentence made clearer; the new conception of history
defined.
3 The history of
morals, of industry, of intellect, and of art; the changes that take
place in manners or beliefs; the dominant ideas that prevailed in
successive periods; the rise, fall, and modification of political
constitutions; in a word, all the conditions of national well-being
became the subjects of their works.
3 The definition
expanded.
4 They sought
rather to write a history of peoples than a history of kings.
4 The definition
explained by contrast.
5 They looked
especially in history for the chain of causes and effects.
5 The definition
supplemented: another element in the new conception of history.
6 They undertook
to study in the past the physiology of nations, and hoped by applying
the experimental method on a large scale to deduce some lessons of real
value about the conditions on which the welfare of society mainly
depend.--Lecky, The Political Value of History.
6 Conclusion: an
important consequence of the new conception of
history.
The breeze served us admirably.
The campaign opened with a series of reverses.
The next ten or twelve pages were filled with a curious set of
entries.
At length I thought I might return towards the stockade.
He picked up the heavy lamp from the table and began to
explore.
Another flight of steps, and they emerged on the
roof.
I shall always remember my first visit to
Boston.
My first visit to Boston will always be remembered by
me.
My first visit to Boston will always be
remembered,
The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed to-day.
Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the
Restoration.
There were a great number of dead leaves
lying on the ground.
Dead leaves covered the ground.
The sound of the falls could still be
heard.
The sound of the falls still reached our
ears.
The reason that he left college was that his
health became impaired.
Failing health compelled him to leave
college.
It was not long before he was very sorry that
he had said what he had.
He soon repented his
words.
Gold was not allowed to be exported.
It was forbidden to export gold (The export
of gold was prohibited).
He has been proved to have been seen entering
the building.
It has been proved that he was seen to enter
the building.
A survey of this region was made in 1900.
This region was surveyed in 1900.
Mobilization of the army was rapidly carried
out.
The army was rapidly mobilized.
Confirmation of these reports cannot be
obtained.
These reports cannot be
confirmed.
He was not very often on time.
He usually came late.
He did not think that studying Latin was much
use.
He thought the study of Latin useless.
The Taming of the Shrew is rather weak
in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Katharine as a very admirable
character, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as an important
character in Shakespeare's works.
The women in The Taming of the Shrew
are unattractive. Katharine is disagreeable, Bianca
insignificant.
not honest
dishonest
not important
trifling
did not remember
forgot
did not pay any attention to
ignored
did not have much confidence in
distrusted
Not charity, but simple justice.
Not that I loved Caesar less, but Rome the
more.
The sun never sets upon the British
flag.
the question as to whether
whether (the question whether)
there is no doubt but that
no doubt (doubtless)
used for fuel purposes
used for fuel
he is a man who
he
in a hasty manner
hastily
this is a subject which
this subject
His story is a strange one.
His story is strange.
owing to the fact that
since (because)
in spite of the fact that
though (although)
call your attention to the fact that
remind you (notify you)
I was unaware of the fact that
I was unaware that (did not know)
the fact that he had not succeeded
his failure
the fact that I had arrived
my arrival
His brother, who is a member of the same
firm
His brother, a member of the same firm
Trafalgar, which was Nelson's last battle
Trafalgar, Nelson's last
battle
Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to
wish to become king of Scotland. The witches told him that this wish of
his would come true. The king of Scotland at this time was Duncan.
Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth murdered Duncan. He was thus enabled to
succeed Duncan as king. (55 words.)
Encouraged by his wife, Macbeth achieved his
ambition and realized the prediction of the witches by murdering Duncan
and becoming king of Scotland in his place. (26
words.)
The third concert of the subscription series was given last evening,
and a large audience was in attendance. Mr. Edward Appleton was the
soloist, and the Boston Symphony Orchestra furnished the instrumental
music. The former showed himself to be an artist of the first rank,
while the latter proved itself fully deserving of its high reputation.
The interest aroused by the series has been very gratifying to the
Committee, and it is planned to give a similar series annually
hereafter. The fourth concert will be given on Tuesday, May 10, when an
equally attractive programme will be
presented.
Formerly, science was taught by the textbook
method, while now the laboratory method is employed.
Formerly, science was taught by the textbook
method; now it is taught by the laboratory
method.
The French, the Italians, Spanish, and
Portuguese
The French, the Italians, the Spanish, and
the Portuguese
In spring, summer, or in winter
In spring, summer, or winter (In spring, in
summer, or in winter)
It was both a long ceremony and very
tedious.
The ceremony was both long and tedious.
A time not for words, but action
A time not for words, but for action
Either you must grant his request or incur
his ill will.
You must either grant his request or incur
his ill will.
My objections are, first, the injustice of
the measure; second, that it is unconstitutional.
My objections are, first, that the measure is
unjust; second, that it is
unconstitutional.
Wordsworth, in the fifth book of The
Excursion, gives a minute description of this church.
In the fifth book of The Excursion,
Wordsworth gives a minute description of this church.
Cast iron, when treated in a Bessemer
converter, is changed into steel.
By treatment in a Bessemer converter, cast
iron is changed into steel.
There was a look in his eye that boded
mischief.
In his eye was a look that boded
mischief.
He wrote three articles about his adventures
in Spain, which were published in Harper's Magazine.
He published in Harper's Magazine
three articles about his adventures in Spain.
This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison,
grandson of William Henry Harrison, who became President in 1889.
This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison,
grandson of William Henry Harrison. He became President in
1889.
The Superintendent of the Chicago Division, who
A proposal to amend the Sherman Act, which has
been variously judged
A proposal, which has been variously judged,
to amend the Sherman Act
A proposal to amend the much-debated Sherman
Act
The grandson of William Henry Harrison,
who
William Henry Harrison's grandson, Benjamin
Harrison, who
The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded with hostility by
the Whigs
All the members were not present.
Not all the members were present.
He only found two mistakes.
He found only two mistakes.
Major R. E. Joyce will give a lecture on
Tuesday evening in Bailey Hall, to which the public is invited, on "My
Experiences in Mesopotamia" at eight P. M.
On Tuesday evening at eight P. M., Major R. E. Joyce will give
in Bailey Hall a lecture on "My Experiences in Mesopotamia." The public
is invited.
An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John from delivering Friar
Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Juliet, meanwhile, owing to her father's
arbitrary change of the day set for her wedding, has been compelled to
drink the potion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasar
informs Romeo of her supposed death before Friar Lawrence learns of the
nondelivery of the letter.
The Legate inquires who struck the
blow.
Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude
since that time, though it has advanced in many other ways.
Humanity, since that time, has advanced in
many other ways, but it has hardly advanced in fortitude.
This steel is principally used for making
razors, because of its hardness.
Because of its hardness, this steel is
principally used in making razors.
Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of the Italian
mariners whom the decline of their own republics had put at the service
of the world and of adventure, seeking for Spain a westward passage to
the Indies as a set-off against the achievements of Portuguese
discoverers, lighted on America.
With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you, laying aside
all hindrance, thrusting away all private aims, to devote yourselves
unswervingly and unflinchingly to the vigorous and successful
prosecution of this war.
Deceit or treachery he could never forgive.
So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly three thousand
years, the fragments of this architecture may often seem, at first
sight, like works of nature.
Great kings worshipped at his shrine,
Through the middle of the valley flowed a winding
stream.
IV. A FEW MATTERS OF FORM
August 9, 1918
Chapter XII
Rule 3
352d Infantry
I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to see him), but he
had left town.
He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?) that he is now
certain of success.
The provision of the Constitution is: "No tax or duty shall be laid
on articles exported from any state."
I recall the maxim of La Rochefoucauld, "Gratitude is a lively sense
of benefits to come."
Aristotle says, "Art is an imitation of
nature."
Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolution was at first unbounded:
But to be young was
very heaven!
Keats declares that beauty is truth, truth
beauty.
These are the times that try men's souls.
He lives far from the madding crowd.
In the second scene of the third act
In III.ii (still better, simply insert III.ii
in parenthesis at the proper place in the sentence)
After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed
under guard (IV. ii. 14).
2 Samuel i:17-27
Othello II.iii 264-267, III.iii.
155-161
The Iliad; the Odyssey; As You Like It; To a Skylark; The
Newcomes; A Tale of Two Cities; Dicken's Tale of Two
Cities.
V. WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS COMMONLY MISUSED
My opinion is as good or better than his.
My opinion is as good as his, or better (if
not better).
In many cases, the rooms were poorly
ventilated.
Many of the rooms were poorly
ventilated.
It has rarely been the case that any mistake
has been made.
Few mistakes have been
made.
Acts of a hostile character
Hostile acts
His superior training was the great factor in
his winning the match.
He won the match by being better
trained.
Heavy artillery is becoming an increasingly
important factor in deciding battles.
Heavy artillery is playing a larger and
larger part in deciding battles.
A feature of the entertainment especially
worthy of mention was the singing of Miss A.
(Better use the same number of words to tell
what Miss A. sang, or if the programme has already been given, to tell
something of how she sang.)
He is a man who is very ambitious.
He is very ambitious.
Spain is a country which I have always wanted
to visit.
I have always wanted to visit
Spain.
The roads were almost impassable. However, we
at last succeeded in reaching camp.
The roads were almost impassable. At last,
however, we succeeded in reaching camp.
However you advise him, he will probably do as he thinks best.
However discouraging the prospect, he never lost
heart.
He had less men than in the previous
campaign.
He had fewer men than in the previous
campaign.
Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines.
Mr. B. also spoke, to the same effect.
He is studying along the line of French
literature.
He is studying French
literature.
A literal flood of abuse
A flood of abuse
Literally dead with fatigue
Almost dead with fatigue (dead
tired)
Most everybody
Almost everybody
Most all the time
Almost all the time
Acts of a hostile nature
Hostile acts
Another phase of the subject
Another point (another question)
He possessed great courage.
He had great courage (was very brave).
He was the fortunate possessor of
He owned
Works of fiction are listed under the names
of their respective authors.
Works of fiction are listed under the names
of their authors.
The one mile and two mile runs were won by
Jones and Cummings respectively.
The one mile and two mile runs were won by
Jones and by Cummings.
A member of the student body
A student
Popular with the student body
Liked by the students
The student body passed resolutions.
The students passed
resolutions.
Dayton has adopted the commission system of
government.
Dayton has adopted government by
commission.
The dormitory system
Dormitories
The office and salesrooms are on the ground
floor, while the rest of the building is devoted to manufacturing.
The office and salesrooms are on the ground
floor; the rest of the building is devoted to
manufacturing.
While I admire his energy, I wish it were employed in a better
cause.
I admire his energy; at the same time I wish it were employed in a
better cause.
While the temperature reaches 90 or 95
degrees in the daytime, the nights are often chilly.
Although the temperature reaches 90 or 95
degrees in the daytime, the nights are often
chilly.
The temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime; at the same
time the nights are often chilly,
His brother, whom he said would send him the
money
His brother, who he said would send him the
money
The man whom he thought was his friend
The man who (that) he thought was his friend
(whom he thought his friend)
His books are not worth while.
His books are not worth reading (not worth
one's while to read; do not repay reading).
I should not have succeeded without his
help.
He predicted that before long we should have a great
surprise.
Once a year he would visit the old
mansion.
Once a year he visited the old
mansion.