Notes on Counselling African-Canadians & Asian-Canadians
"By your stumbling, the world is made perfect." Sri Auribindo
"It is dangerous to be open: it is like putting a face on your heart and going out into the world." Sylvia Plathe
These statements by Sri Auribindo and Sylvia Plathe conceptualized some fundamental ideas about forgiveness and opennes that are essential in cross-cultural understanding. That is that everyone in intercultural training are in process and bound to make mistakes. The call is to be patient and helpful to each other. It is our ability to be compassionate and thoughtful to one another. After all we all are "fellow travellors" on the road to enlightenment. The idea of a cross-cultural counselling and teaching course is to enlighten, inform, sensitize and teach curriculum approaches, theories of helping, and strategies that can be used to help others. All people of every culture existing in Canadian society are "brothers and sisters" and so embracing each other, letting go of predujices and "politically correctness", need to be fostered. That not only means being understanding, but sharing our feelings in a way that is helpful. If you see injustice, then share it, but share it to enlighten and to educate. Do not take negative feedback negatively. We need to let go of our need to control and to always be right. We need to let go, in order to allow everyone to grow cross-culturally. We need to literally teach each other to be more sensitive. The idea of respecting others is a difficult task that is filled with "stumblings" and mistakes. It requires sensitivity to others at a degree that reflects what was identified in Pederson, et. al. (1996) as cultrual empathy. A detailed description can be found on pages 24-36.
From my notes: Consider the challenge and the background of those from African ethnic groups who live in North America:
Consider that perhaps our reaction to black families has to do with our nuclear family orientation! One has to consider the extended family in all interactions. Then there is the church and its powerful place in the Black community. The church was a place of spiritual enrichment in the Black community, but also a place of social, personal and political advancement. It is not surprising that in the USA, where North American blacks have achieved prominance culturally, socially, intellectually and politically that one of the most famous figures is that of Jessie Jackson. He is both a spiritual leader and political leader. So it only makes sense that counsellors would involve the church or the extended family of your Black client.
One of the most important issues for blacks in regards to counselling is that there is a difference compared to majority society and Blacks. Consider that: 50% of blacks terminate after the first session compared to 30% of whites, but yet have a positive view of counselling. Consider the following questions in regards to counselling.
What about the effectiveness of family therapy?
- it has not been successful with low income blacks;
- non-traditional family arrangements;
- multiple roles within the family (older child becomes like a parent);
- giving up and feeling victimized by the school system;
- unwilling to come to counselling; Franklin cautions that the counsellor might be mislead; deliberately frighten; be confrontative; test trustworthiness.
- the counsellor should discuss the relationship;
-negotiate a contract (trial period & firm limit about verbal abuse)
What about values?
- take in consideration cultural factors, social class and the experience of racism.
- the African heritage stresses: groupness, community, cooperation and interdependence; being one with nature;
- with other blacks, they are playful open, responsive and expressive, but more cautious with whites (mitigated by class and acceptance by whites);
- racism produces defense and survival mechanisms among blacks;
- Jones suggest that blacks be assisted in developing a wider range of options and encouragement for deal with problem solving (medical student example);
Interaction of 4 sets of factors in the Jones Model
1. reaction to racism they have faced racism and it plays a role; counsellors who considered race as a possible factor in a problem, where considered more competent by blacks;
2. influence of Afro- culture: there is a variation of influence and affiliation;
3. influence of majority culture: what are the influence and how does it impact the client - understand values & motivation - focus on making good choices;
4. difference in individual & family experiences;
What are the Barriers
1. Racism: conscious or unconscious level in either group; belief that blacks are inferior; create their own problems; cultural differences; lifestyle differences; blame the victim.
2. colour blindness: a black is the same as any client; acknowledged and explored; be careful of solutions based on middle class white values;
3. Paternalism: seeing problems as stemming from racism; counsellor becomes a protector, which fosters dependency.
4. unquestioned acceptance of Black Power: achieving something disregarding the rights of others; freely express hostility; racial guilt of the counsellor or to prove the he/she is racial unbiased.
Consider that economic needs verses actualization as a theme of counseling.
Consider the following research results: There are cost of racism that are immencse for minorities. Consider that in a study of racial awareness preference with whites and African Americans children in l947 (cite in Sue & Sue 1990), that found African-American children preferred playing "...with a White doll over a Black one, the Black doll was perceived as being "bad," and approximately one-third, when asked to pick the doll that looked like them, picked the White one" (p. 99). In l987, a group of researchers reported at the American Psychological Association that their results were similar. There were a number of major concepts that help counsellors and teachers understand how to deal with those of African-Canadian tradition.
NIGRESCENCE THEORY
DEFINITION OF NIGRESCENCE: A French word that means. in a cultural-psychological sense. the process of becoming Black.
OVERVIEW: The Theory; is designed to reveal the nuances of identity development that are unique to the experiences of Black people. The stages of Nigrescence have provided the foundation for thinking about Asian-American identity development. feminist identity development. and gay-lesbian identity development. Nigrescence theory has been revised to capture "real-world" identity conflicts and ideological splits found among contemporary Black leaders. For example. rather than a model that suggests commonalties in the identity dynamics of all persons who reach Internalization. the revised model allows for the existence of ideological "splits"" at that stage (i.e. Afro-centric word view vs. Bicultural frame of reference vs. Bicultural ideology).
STAGES:
I. Pre-Encounter: Some Black persons at this stage place low salience on Blackness. but. because they have achieved a strong identity that is grounded in something other than race (e.g. gay community. (gangs. etc.). may evidence high self-esteem and advanced ego development. Others at this stage show signs of having internalized racist notions about Black people. low self-esteem. and weak ego development. Both types may undergo Nigrescence. one to increase the salience of race in his or her life. the other as a corrective to racial self-negativity.
2. Encounter: The event or events that lead a person to conclude that he or she needs to change in the direction of greater cultural awareness.
3. Immersion - Emersion: This is the transition stage during which the old and emergent identities struggle for dominance.
4. Internalization: Persons at this stage show high salience for race and culture. however. they cluster into divergent ideological camps. Persons at Internalization can be expected to have higher self-esteem and healthier ego identity development than persons at Pre-Encounter who show signs of internalized racism. However. no differences can be expected with persons at Pre-Encounter who exhibit low race salience but little evidence of internalized racism.
Key Factors Influencing Nigrescence:
Individual Differences such as social identity. education level. occupation. sexual orientation religious affiliation. etc.
Situational Factors that define a persons context such as family structure. socioeconomic status. 'neighborhood quality and dynamics. In some contexts. affiliation with Blackness may he appropriate for optimal psychological functioning. The context a person finds him or herself in seems to be the explanatory; or moderating variable.
Counselling Implications:
*Avoid presumptions about level of adjustment being tied to one's identity being centered on race.
*Be aware of how context can effect healthy Black adjustment
*Attempt to understand client 5 frame of reference
*Base social and other interventions on multidimensional model of Black psychological functioning
*Cases to Consider in Counselling African-Canadians:
The Case of Susan: Susan is a thirty-five year old Black woman. Her home country in Africa has been embroiled in civil war for twenty years. Two years ago, her husband was killed in a guerrilla attack. Concluding that her country would never find peace, she immigrated to Canada six months ago with her three children (ages fifteen, thirteen, and ten). The children have been acting out aggressively at school bringing them and their mother to the attention of the school counsellor. The counsellor has recommended and arranged for Susan to attend counselling with you, a private therapist. Susan presents with mood swings, feelings of guilt and low self-esteem.
What factors may be contributing to Susan's issues? Culture shock, grief loss, lack of money, personal support, parenting skills, employment...Nigrescence theory .. . would ethnic identity be an issue for them? (they could be at any stage of the theory or it may not apply to them at all -- i.e. they already have high salience for race and culture and present issues have nothing to do with this at all)
What are the implications for counselling? (What are your reactions, assumptions, plans?)
Assumptions: Being raised in Africa should give them a strong Black identity (because of apartheid, etc. ethnic identity could be a real issue.)
The Case of Bob: Bob is a twenty-six year old single, black male. Two weeks ago, he was arrested after a bar-room brawl. One of the conditions for release stated that he must attend counselling for anger management issues. He has been referred to you. In your first session, he tells you that he was born and raised in Los Angeles. He moved to Victoria six months ago to join his sister. She is very busy with her husband and children so is unable to give him much support. Bob is unemployed and believes that he has been unable to find work because of his race. He feels discouraged and isolated. You have a hunch that low self esteem may be an issue.
What factors may be contributing to Bob's issues? Transition, unable to find work, loneliness, past issues i.e. growing up in LA?, Nigrescence theory: shows signs of internalized racial self-negativity at the pre-encounter phase - low self-esteem or is his self esteem issues related to the possibility that Victoria has shown itself to be a very racist place in terms of hiring procedures?
What are the implications for counselling? (What are your reactions, assumptions, plans?) Possible Assumptions - that Bob was actually in the brawl (he may have been a bystander), that Bob may be violent based on his race, age and the fact that he lived in LA during the Riots.
The Case of Rebecca: Rebecca is a twenty-three year old, black woman. Her family moved to Toronto from Jamaica when she was three years old. She lived there until she finished high-school. At eighteen, she left home to seek her fortune in the west. She has lived in Victoria for the past three years. Last year, she lost her government job. Although initially depressed about her unemployment, she soon came to see it as an opportunity and returned to school to pursue a degree in Child and Youth Care. Halfway through her first year, Rebecca's depression returned. As the depression took hold, Rebecca found herself unable to concentrate on her assignments. Her self-confidence rapidly decreased while feelings of inadequacy increased. Fearing failure, Rebecca makes an appointment at the University Counselling Centre. When she arrives, you (the counsellor) are surprised to see that she has died her hair blonde and is wearing a thick layer of pale face make-up.
What factors may be contributing to Rebecca's issues?
Nigrescence theory: pre-encounter phase- showing signs of internalized racist notions, low self-esteem, weak ego development. Stress related to transition, school demands, missing family, etc.? (may just be the style to die hair blonde or wear white make-up).
What are the implications for counselling? (What are your reactions, assumptions, plans?) Need more information? Explore issues around identity?
From my notes: Consider the challenge and the background of those from Asian ethnic groups who live in North America
"Asian-Canadians are a very diverse group of poeple with differing languages and cultures. While much of the information deals with generalities, it is important in dealing with diverse groups to keep each individual cultural group in mind when working with them. Where do the people of Asian come from who has immigrated to Canada? The three largest groups are Chinese, East Indian (Indo-Canadian), and the Philippines. The following from Statistics Canada (1991) indicates the Asian ethnic groups and the numbers in Canada:
| Ethnic Background | 1991 | 1986 |
| Chinese | 586,645 | 360,320 |
| East Indian | 324,840 | 220,625 |
| Filipino | 157,250 | 93,280 |
Despite a history of difference and conflict, Ho (1992) listed seven values held in common by Asian cultures that may be valid considerations in counselling in North America:
1. Filial piety: High respect for parents.
2. Shame: Improper behavior can bring "loss of face".
3. Self-control: Manifested as unwillingness to intrude on another's time, stoicism, patience, uncomplaining in the face of adversity, etc.
4. Assumption of the middle position: Tend to seek and abide by consensus; promotes belonging and togetherness.
5. Awareness of the social milieu: Sensitivity to opinions and feelings of others. Individual's feelings are subordinated for social solidarity.
6. Fatalism: Accepts events as predetermined. Can be misconstrued by helping profession as resistance.
7. Inconspicuousness: Fear of attracting attention, especially of government.
Asians in North America do not use professional services in relation to their population. The appreciation for the need for the delivery of culturally sensitive services is still evolving. Much work still needs to be done to match ethnically similar professionals and clients. Looking different results in (different perceptions by the non-Asian majority in North America. Diversity among Asians continues, due to two parallel processes: continuing immigration together with cultural assimilation of North American born people of Asian background.
Overview of (Kitano's) Model:
* Two significant aspects of counselling Asian-Canadians are:
1. level of assimilation (low to high);
2. level of ethnic idenity (high to low).
* Four Client Types:
| high assimilation, low ethnic idenity | high assimilation, high ethnic idenity | low assimilation, high ethnic idenity | low assimilation, low ethnic idenity |
* Similarities with Berry's acculturation model (as quoted by Lefley) - assimilation, integration, rejection & deculturation.
EVALUATION OF Kitano's Model:
* It is transferable, so it is useful as a guide for counsellors/teachers for encompassing a diverse range of individuals;
* It assumes "fixed" ethnic identity formation, so does not account well for life events or internal psychological changes;
* The cycle of Nigrescence that reinforces Kitano's Model.
COUNSELLOR INTERVENTION WITH ASIAN CLIENTS
Incorporate values about help seeking values about help seeking behavior, mental illness and centrality of the family:
- modest & humility in social interactions;
- deferential behavior (re: personal concerns);
- collective interpersonal orientation;
- emphasis on family & individual role in family;
- respect & loyalty for authority.
-focus on the therapeutic goal in the first meeting -problem solving approach to address issues (brevity) acknowledge and accept client's goal;
- client participates in guiding the course of treatment in keeping with cultural values & norms.
OTHER SPECIFIC COUNSELLOR INTERVENTION
N.B. to be cognizant of proper protocol within the family & culture educate the client about the counseling process:
* ask client to identify exceptions to the presenting problems (client strengths and saving face);
* use of relationship questions to understand client's worldview and client's interactions;
* asking the client to describe what is needed to resolve the problem - to set goals & generate solutions;
* asking how they cope - empowers and reassures about their own coping skills.
The following strategies or groups can be formed to examine important concepts in cross-cultural counselling. First, read the question, then the Asian value, followed by a consideration fot he question:
Group 1
What. strategies might you use in a counselling or teaching situation in which you are aware that the following cultural value may be a factor?
Filial Piety, or high respect for parents. Oya-ko-ko, the Japanese version of filial piety is linked to a child's sensitivity, obligations, and loyalty to his or her lineage and parents. Asian children are expected to comply with family wishes, even to the point of sacriiiicing their own personal desires and ambitions.
Group2
What strategies might you use m a counseliiflg or teaching situation in which you are aware that the following cultural value may be a factor?
Shame: used as a method of reinforcing expectations and proper behavior. Improper behavior brings shame and loss of face and may cause significant others, including the family and community, to withdraw support.
Group 3
What strategies might you use in a counselling or teaching situation in which you are aware that the following cultural value may be a factor?
Self-control: reflected by the Japanese value of enryo, which requires modesty in behavior, humbleness in expectations, and appropriate hesitation, even when the individual highly desires an object. It connotes an unwilliness to intrude on another's time, energy, or resources. In Chinese, yin-nor is to show stoicism, patience, and an uncomplaining attitude in the face of adversity and to display tolerance under ')painful conditions. Such values significantly shape interpersonal styles in Asian and Asian-North American relationships. In North America, individuals are allowed to assert themselves until other react and set limits; in Japan, individuals are expected to practice restraint until others relax their boundaries.
Group 5
What strategies might you use in a counselling or teaching situation in which you are aware that the following cultural value may he a factor?
Awareness of social milieu: which means an awareness and sensitivity to the opinions and feelings of others. Individuals are expected to subordinate their feelings in the interest of social solidarity. Similar to the values of self-control and assuming the middle position, this value reflects the group orientation of Asian cultures.
Group 6
What strategies might you use in a counselling or teaching situation in which you are aware that the following cultural value may be a factor?
Fatalism: a belief system that accepts events as predetermined. individuals are powerless and have little control over their own lives; the relative acceptance of the Japanese Canadians and Americans in being ordered into the concentration camps of World War II was partially due to their attitude of shi-ka-ta-ga-nai, '"It couldn't be helped." Ho (1992) indicated that this pragmatic adaptability and unwillingness to accept professional services is often misconstrued by mental health professionals as resistance.
Group 7
What strategies might you use in a counselling or teaching situation in which you are aware that the following cultural value may be a factor?
Inconspicuousness: based on the fear of attracting attention. Experiences in both the home country and Canada reinforced the value of being invisible; the fear of using governmental or any outside services has been a strong force among North American Asians, especially of the immigrant generation. This value necessitates sensitive implementation of outreach and service delivery strategies to Asian communities. Such strategies will need to be sensitive to the potential mistrust and desire to avoid counselling services.
Conclusion
In considering these approaches presented in the class as outlined by Pederson, et. al., one must be aware that these are generalizations based on the literature. These are incomplete models that only suggest the large number of theories, research conclusions and personal stories. The assummption in these model is that race is a central factor in identity development, yet it may not apply to everyone of African- or Asian- decent. These theories do not necessarily relate to those of Africa or Asia, but those from those continents that have either emmigrated or came to North America as bonded servants or slaves. The richness of those from African- or Asian- decent are as multipotential and multivariable as any other ethnic group who calls Canada their home. Yet, despite their nativeness to the North American continent, those of African- and Asian- decent are of colour and this aspect will always be a part of their identify. Finally, Pederson, et al (1996) stresses that: "change is reflected in differences by generation and a more open ...soceity. Assimilation and the development of ethnic identity remain important process related to ethnicity and culture" (p. 142).
References
Pederson, P., Draguns, J. Lonner, W. & Trimble, J. (l996). Counseling across cultures, 4th Edition, London, UK: Sage Publications.
Updated: October 14, l999