ASSAM
See also BRITISH INDIA PRINCELY STATES IN RELATION WITH THE PROVINCE OF ASSAM
ASSAM 1824 - 1874
THE BRITISH CONQUEST OF ASSAM
The British conquest of the future Indian province of Assam started in 1824 - 1825, when troops of the British East India Company [BEIC - (1)] occupied the Kingdom of Assam, then ruled by the Burmese. To this initial territory were later added : - other annexed states : - the State of Cachar, - the Eastern Khasi State of Jaintia, (for the Western Khasi States and the Kingdom of Manipur who came under British rule, but were not annexed to British India see here) - several annexed tribal areas (see here) ASSAM The Ahom Kingdom of Assam was founded in 1228 when the Ahom Thai - related to the Shan in present-day Myanmar - started the conquest of large parts of North Eastern India. The territorial formation of the Ahom kingdom was achieved in the 17th century and by the early 18th century - when its power was at its highest - Ahom rule extended over : - the actual kingdom of Assam (2), - tributary local states (Jaintia and the Western Khasi states) - tribal hill communities (sections of the Abor, of the Mishmi, of the Naga and of others). In most cases these hill communities were however only nominally subject to Assam and in some cases (the Abor, the Aka and others) it was actually Assam which payed them a "posa" (a kind of ransom) to prevent their raids. In the last years of the 18th century and the first years of the 19th century the kingdom was weakened by the Moamaria revolt, by the migration of the Khamti (s.b.) and by internal quarrels. It then became easy prey for its Burrmese neighbours. Burmese and British interventions and the end of the Ahom Kingdom of Assam (1816 - 1838) 1810 - 1818 Reign of Swargadev (King) Sudinpha Chandrakanta Singha Narendra (1... - 182.) Actual power was in the hands of the Bura Gohain (Governor of Upper Assam and de facto prime minister) Purnananda (17.. - 1817), vanquisher of the Matak and of the Khamti. 1816 : The Bar Pukhan (Commander-in Chief and Viceroy of Lower Assam) Badanchandra (17.. - 1817) revolted against the Bura Gohain. He was expelled but later in the same year he returned with the assistance of Burmese troops. 1817 : Battle of Ghiladhari (Mar 27) : The Ahom were defeated by the Burmese and Bura Gohain Purnananda was killed. His son Ruchinath (1... - 1819) succeeded him, but was forced into exile. Having reinstated Badanchandra as Bar Phukan, the Burmese left the country with a substantial war indemnity (Apr 1817). Soon afterwards Bar Phukan Badanchandra was assassinated on instigation of Swargadev Chandrakanta Singha and Bura Gohain Ruchinath returned from exile. 1818 : Bura Gohain Ruchinath revolted against King Chandrakanta Singha and deposed him 1818 - 1819 Reign of Swargadev Purandar Singha Narendra. Placed on the throne by Ruchinath, who remained the real master of the country. 1819 : (Jan) To avenge the assassination of Badanchandra, the Burmese (Commander Kiwu Mingyi) invaded Assam for a second time. Despite a defeat at Nazira (Feb 15) they occupied the capital, killed Bura Gohain Ruchinath and deposed King Purandar Singha, who fled to British India (Mar 09). 1819 - 1821 Second reign of Swargadev Sudinpha Chandrakanta Singha Narendra Placed on the throne by the Burmese 1821 : Rupture of the relations between King Chandrakanta Singha and the Burmese. The King fled to Western Assam, where he organized the resistance against the Burmese (Apr). 1821 - 1822 Reign of Swargadev Jogesvar Singha Placed on the Assamese throne by the Burmese after the rupture with Chandrakanta Singha. 1821 : With the assistance of Bhutanese forces, former King Purandar Singha returned to Assam. His forces encountered those of Chandrakanta Singha instead of the Burmese, and were defeated by them (May). Soon afterwards Chandrakanta Singha was himself defeated by the Burmese and forced once again to go into exile in British India. Later in the same year (Dec) he returned and liberated Western Assam. 1822 : Chandrakanta Singha conquered most of Assam (Mar). New Burmese forces (Commander : Mingyi Maha Bandula) then entered Assam and defeated him (Jun 21), forcing him once more into exile. This was the actual end of the Ahom kingdom, whose administration was now entrusted to a Burmese official, Mingyi Maha Thilawa. (3) Following the outbreak of the first Anglo-Burmese War in 1824, the British invaded Assam. The ensuing campaign lasted until June 1825, when the last Burmese troops were expelled. The following year, the Burmese signed the Peace Treaty of Yandaboo, giving up all further claims upon Assam [and upon all other territories they had occupied in the course of the previous years (Cachar, Jaintia, Manipur - s.b.)]. Once in possession of Assam, the British did however not restore the Ahom monarchy, but instead annexed it - the Khamti and Matak lands excluded - to Bengal. This led to some - rapidly quelled - rebellions among the Ahom [in 1828 (Leader : Gomdhar Konwar), in 1829 (Leader : Gadadhar Singha), ...] As a consequence of all this agitation, the British transformed annexed Upper Assam - the area where most Ahom lived - into a tributary kingdom in 1832. British Agent (possibly also in charge of the Khamti and Matak areas) 1832 - 1838 Maj. Adam White 1790 - 1839 King 1832 - 1838 Swargadev Purandar Singha Narendra s.a. In 1838 Purandar Singha was deposed for misrule and Upper Assam again came under direct British rule. Linked to Assam were : - the State of the Khamti - the Kingdom of Matak KHAMTI The Khamti (Thai origin) migrated to the northeastern Assamese province of Sadiya in the last years of the 18th century. They then expelled the local Ahom officials and established their own state (1794). The Ahom kings did some attempts to drive them out of Assam, but they failed and ca 1811 the Khamti chiefdom was eventually recognized as a tributary state of Assam, the Khamti ruler being granted the rank of a provincial governor. Like most of the rest of Assam the Khamti area was conquered first by the Burmese (1819) and later by the British (1825). But unlike the other "liberated" Assamese territories, the Sadiya region was not immediately annexed to British India : the situation of before 1819 was restored, the Khamti governor now being under British instead of Ahom overlordship. This situation lasted until 1838, when the then ruling governor was deposed and a British Political Agent took charge of the administration of the state. This resulted in a failed revolt in 1839 - 1843, the annexation of the Sadiya area to British Bengal and the dispertion of the Khamti population. Governors of Sadiya Sadiyakhowa Gohain 1825 - 1834 Chow Salam 1... - 1834 1834 - 1838 Chowrang Phat, son, deposed by the British MATAK In the late 18th century adherents of the unorthodox Hindu sect of the Moamaria (or Mayamaria) successfully revolted against the traditional Hindu rulers of Assam. They then established several independent enclaves within Assam, the most important of these being the Matak Kingdom of Bengmora established in 1788 and covering the eastern part of Upper Assam. The Ahim kings of Assam reconquered most of the lost areas in the first years of the 19th century. But when they reached the Matak kingdom they preferred avoiding a conflict with the Burmese and therefore made a compromise with the Matak (1806), whose state was now recognized as an autonomous tributary state, in exchange for its ruler's agreement to give up the claim to an independent kingship. In 1826 the Matak state - the only region of Assam that had not been conquered by the Burmese in the period 1819-1825 - signed an agreement with the BEIC and became a tributary state. This situation lasted until 1842 when - in an attempt to end the conflicts between the Moamaria and the orthodox Hindu - the area was annexed to British Bengal. Great Commanders-in-Chief Barsenapati 1805 - 1839 Matibar Barsenapati 17.. - 1839 1839 - 1842 Bhageerut Maju Gohain, son, deposed by the British (1) Assam entered into relations with the BEIC in the 18th century : in 1792 the Company even dispatched an expeditionary corps to help the Ahom kings against the Moamaria rebels. (2) Within Assam the Ahom were only a ruling minority, the vast majority of the population being Bodo, a collectve name given to the pre-Ahom inhabitants of the area. The Ahom gradually abandoned their Thai culture, traditions and language and became completely indianized. (3) It's not clear what happened to Jogesvar Singha at that moment. Was he deposed or did he nominally continue in office until 1826 ? Additional information will be appreciated. CACHAR The Kingdom of Cachar was one of the leading states in North East India before the arrival of the Ahom. But successive wars with the newcomers then however gradually reduced its power and territory. In the early 19th century the kingdom split into : - a northern kingdom (covering Central and Northern Cachar), ruled by a rebelious official and his successor, - a southern kingdom (covering Southern Cachar), formally still ruled by the legal kings, but in fact dominated since 1819 by Manipuri princes, having fled their own country for the Burmese. Invoking the "liberation of Cachar of Manipuri domination" as excuse, the Burmese invaded the country in 1824. They were immediately countered by forces of the BEIC who expelled them and then restored the lawfull king as a tributary ruler. In 1830 the throne of (Southern) Cachar became vacant and after a failed attempt of Manipur to take over, the BEIC took charge of the adminstration (Collector and Magistrate 1830 - 1832 : Capt. Thomas Fisher) before annexing the country in 1832. The Northern Kingdom had to cede Central Cachar to the British in 1834, while the northern part was annexed in 1854 after the death of its last ruler. Raja of Southern Cachar 1813 - 1830 Gobindchandra Narayan, in British exile 1820 - 1824, assassinated 1... - 1830 Raja's of Northern Cachar 1... - 182. Kahi Dass, assassinated 182. - 1828 Tularam Senapati, son, expelled 1... - 1854 1828 - 1829 Govindaram, cousin (and ill. son of Gobindchandra Narayan of Southern Cachar), usurpator, expelled 1829 - 1854 Tularam Senapati (2x) JAINTIA The Eastern Khasi (or Synteng) Kingdom of Jaintia was already mentioned in the 16th century. (4) The country later came under the overlordship of the Ahom Kingdom of Assam and at the end of the 18th century it was simultaneously forced to accept BEIC supremacy, a consequence of some British punitive expeditions against Jaintia raids in British Indian territory. When the Burmese invaded the kingdom in 1824, it signed a formal treaty with the BEIC, whose troops expelled the invaders. Despite the treaty - and mainly because Jaintia tried to expand into the area of the former Ahom Kingdom - the relations between the BEIC and Jaintia were not very cordial and in 1835 the kingdom was eventually annexed to British India. Syiem 1789 - 1832 Ram Singh 17.. - 1832 1832 - 1835 Rajendra Narayan Singh, grandnephew, deposed by the British 1... - 1862 In Jan 1862 there was a major revolt against British authority. Its leader U Kiang Nongbah was executed in Dec 1862, but some fighting continued until Nov 1863. (4) Jaintia started as a confederation of 12 Chiefdoms [hence its initial name of "Ka Ri Khadar Doloi" (The Land of the Twelve Chiefs)]. The integration of these chiefdoms into one state was never complete and on the eve of the annexation by the British, the country was divided into two parts : - the plain area under the direct authority of the Raja, - the hill area, ruled by some 19 local chiefs (Doloi), under the nominal overlordship of the Raja. __________________________________________________________________________________BRITISH ADMINISTRATORS 1824 - 1874
ADMINISTRATORS OF THE FORMER ASSAM KINGDOM (1824 - 1832) British Assam - annexed to the province of Bengal in 1826 - was under military rule from 1824 to 1828. Commanders of the British Forces in Assam 1824 BrigGen. George McMorine 1763 - 1824 1824 - 1828 Col. Arthur Richards, since 1826 in charge of military and judicial affairs Political Agent in Assam and on the North-East Frontier 1826 - 1828 Maj. David Scott, in charge of administrative and "diplomatic affairs" (with neighbouring communities, like the Khasi, etc) (5) 1786 - 1831 In 1828 annexed Assam became a commissionership. Commissioners of Assam and Agents to the Governor General on the North-East Frontier 1828 - 1831 Maj. David Scott s.a. 1831 - 1832 ... ADMINISTRATORS OF THE ASSAMESE DISTRICTS IN BENGAL (1832 - 1874) In 1832 : - Upper Assam became a tributary kingdom (s.a.) - Lower Assam was divided into the Bengal districts of Darrang, Goalpara, Kamrup and Nagaon. (6) - the district of Cachar was created out of the southern kingdom of the same name. Later new districts were added : 1838 : the districts of Lakhimpur and Sibsager, created out of the former kingdom of Upper Assam. (7) 1854 : the Khasi and Jaintia Hills District. 1866 : the Naga Hills District. 1869 : the Garo Hills District. The supreme authority for these districts was the administrator of Bengal, locally represented by the Commissioner of Assam. Commissioners of Assam and Agents to the Governor General on the North-East Frontier 1832 - 1834 ... 1834 - 1861 Col. Francis Jenkins 1793 - 1866 1861 - 1874 Henry Hopkinson 1820 - 1899 (5) Scott was already present in the area as Agent to the Governor General on the North-East Frontier of Bengal since the early years of the century. (6) For some years, the Nagaon district also included the territory of the former Northern Cachar Kingdom (see here), while the district of Goalpara was later enlarged with the so-called Assam Duars. The Duars The seven Assam Duars (Banska, Bijne, Booree-Goomah, Chappagoorieb, Chappakhamar, Ghaurkolla and Kalling) were fertile plains situated between Bhutan and Assam. Initially they had been part of the kingdom of Assam, but later they were conquered by the Bhutanese and following a peace agreement : - the Duars of Booree-Goomah and Kalling were administered in common by both states, - the five others became subject to Bhutan in exchange for the payment of a yearly tribute to Assam. When the British annexed Assam in 1826 they inherited this situation. As they were little inclined to pay the tribute and as they needed the plains for their tea plantations, they soon came into conflict with Bhutan. The matter was eventually settled in 1865 when Bhutan was forced to sign the Treaty of Sinchula, whereby it relinquished the seven Duars to Britain. The Duars then formed a new district, which was however soon marged with Goalpara (1867?) (7) In 1842 the Khamti and Matak areas were added to the district of Lakhimpur.
BRITISH INDIAN PROVINCE OF ASSAM
In 1874 all above mentioned districts were detached from Bengal to become the new Province of Assam. (1) The province ceased to exist from 1905 to 1912 and its districts were transferred to the new Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Following the passing of the Government of India Act by the British Parliament in 1935, the restored province was granted internal autonomy in 1937. (2) In 1941 the provincial government resigned and the administration was taken over by the British governor until 1942. With the exception of the district of Sylhet - which opted for union with Eastern Pakistan - the Province of Assam joined independent India in 1947. THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION OF NORTH EASTERN INDIA From March to June 1944 part of the Province of Assam - more precisely of its Naga Hills District - and part of the Indian State of Manipur were occupied by Japanese and Free Indian forces. The administration of the occupied areas was formally entrusted to the Provisional Government of Free India (the Arzi Hukumat e Azad Hind), whose Minister of Finance MajGen. A. C. Chatterjee was appointed governor. But in fact they remained under the combined military administration of the Japanese and Free Indian forces. In July 1944 the British expelled the occupants. COMMANDERS OF THE JAPANESE AND FREE INDIAN FORCES IN NORTH EASTERN INDIA Commander of the 15th Army (In Japanese family names are given first) 1943 - 1944 LtGen. Mutaguchi Renya 1888 - 1966 Commander of the 31st Division (Operating in the Naga Hills District) 1943 - 1944 LtGen. Sato Kotoku 1893 - 1959 Commanders of the 15th and 33rd Divisions (Operating in Manipur) Commanders of the 15th Division 1942 - 1944 LtGen. Yamauchi Masafumi 1891 - 1944 1944 - 1945 LtGen. Shibita Ryuichi Commanders of the 33rd Division 1943 - 1944 LtGen. Yanagida Motoso 1944 - 1945 LtGen. Tanaka Nobuo Commander of the 1st Division of the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) 194. - 1945 MajGen. Shahnawaz Khan 1... - 1959 (1) Also added to the new province was the district of Sylhet, established as a district of Bengal in 1782. Later were also added to Assam : - the Lushai Hills District (1898) - the North Eastern Frontier Tracts (1914) (2) In fact, the power of the autonomous provincial government did not extend over the whole province, some areas remaining totally or partially subject to the authority of the British governor. (See here) __________________________________________________________________________________BRITISH CHIEF ADMINISTRATORS
Chief Commissioners 1874 - 1878 Richard Harte Keatinge 1825 - 1904 1878 - 1881 Stewart Colvin Bayley 1836 - 1925 1881 - 1886 Sir Charles Alfred Elliott 1835 - 1911 1885 - 1887 William Erskine Ward 1838 - 1916 1887 - 1889 Sir Dennis Fitzpatrick 1837 - 1920 1889 - 1891 James Wallace Quinton 1834 - 1891 1891 - 1896 William Erskine Ward (2x) 1896 - 1902 Sir Henry John Stedman Cotton 1845 - 1915 1902 - 1905 Sir Joseph Bampfylde Fuller 1854 - 1935 1905 - 1912 : Assam part of the Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Chief Commissioners 1912 - 1918 Sir Archdale Earle 1861 - 1934 1918 - 1921 Sir Nicholas Dodd Beatson Bell 1867 - 1936 Governors 1921 Sir Nicholas Dodd Beatson Bell s.a. 1921 - 1922 Sir William Sinclair Marris 1873 - 1945 1922 - 1927 Sir John Henry Kerr 1871 - 1934 1927 - 1932 Sir Egbert Laurie Lucas Hammond 1873 - 1939 1932 - 1937 Sir Michael Keane 1874 - 1937 1937 - 1942 Robert Neil Reid 1883 - 1964 1942 - 1947 Sir Andrew Gourlay Clow 1890 - 1957 1947 Sir Akbar Hydari 1894 - 1948 _________________________________________________________________________________MINISTERS
Premiers 1937 - 1938 Maulavi Saiyid Sir Muhammad Saadulla 1938 - 1939 Srijtu Gopinath Bordoloi 1890 - 1950 1939 - 1941 Maulavi Saiyid Sir Muhammad Saadulla (2x) 1941 - 1942 none 1942 - 1946 Maulavi Saiyid Sir Muhammad Saadulla (3x) 1946 - 1950 Srijut Gopinath Bordoloi (2x) __________________________________________________________________________________EXCLUDED AND PARTIALLY EXCLUDED AREAS OF ASSAM
In 1873 the "Assamese" parts of the Province of Bengal were divided into two zones separated from each other by the so-called "Inner Line" : - A first zone covered the territory south and west of the Line. It included the regions where the British administration was firmly established and where most of the population was Indian (= Hindu or Muslim) - A second zone covered the regions north and east of the Line. It included areas where British authority was only nominal and where most of the population was non-Indian. (3) In 1919, the territories included in the second zone were styled "Backward Tracks". They were considered as not yet ready to participate in the changing constitutional life of Assam and therefore remained under the direct and exclusive authority of the British Governor. In 1935 (1937) - when Assam was granted internal autonomy - these Backward Tracks were restyled "Excluded Areas". At the same time they were regrouped into two categories : - Excluded Areas The Excluded Areas were areas where the vast majority of the population was non- Indian. They were not placed under the authority of the autonomous provincial government, but continued to remain under the direct and exclusive authority of the British governor. - Partially Excluded Areas The Partially Excluded Areas were areas with a mixed population of Indians and non-Indians. Unlike the Excluded Areas, these territories were transferred to the authority of the autonomous government, but with the restriction that the British governor was empowered to adapt all promulgated provincial laws to the local needs of the concerned areas. In 1947 all excluded areas became "Tribal Areas" within Indian Assam. (3) The main purpose of the Inner Line was the prevention of conflicts between the Indian plainsmen and the tribal mountaineers, in order to allow the peaceful economic exploitation (of rubber, tea, timber, ...) of the area. This was mainly achieved by : - the interdiction of non-tribals to enter the area beyond the Line without a formal permission of the British authorities (restricting in fact the entry of the area to British officials, businessmen and missionaries) - a policy of non-intervention in the native affairs beyond the Line (which was gradually abandoned in the course of the following years) EXCLUDED AREAS LUSHAI HILLS DISTRICT (present-day Mizoram) The Lushai - now known as Mizo - were related to the Chin in present-day Myanmar, who forced them to migrate into what was to be known as the Lushai Hills (present -day Mizoram) in the 16th and 17th centuries. Although most of the area was - formally at least - seen as subject to the Kingdom of Tripura, most Lushai were actually free and divided into independent "village- states". These were ruled by "lal", hereditary absolute chiefs belonging to one of the six clans descending from Chief Thangura who lived in the early 18th century : Pallian (or Pytoo), Rivung, Rokum, Syloo (or Sailo), Thangluah and Zedeng (or Jadeng). For part of the 18th century the Zedeng chiefs had been predominant. But after a war that lasted from ca 1790 to ca 1810, Syloo Chief Lallula (17.. - 184.) imposed his rule and gradually replaced the village chiefs belonging to the Rivung, Rokum and Zedeng clans in the Central and the Northern Lushai Hills by chiefs of his own Syloo clan (leaving only the southern villages of the Lushai hills under their own Pallian and Thangluah chiefs). After the death of Lallula in 184., the area ruled by the Syloo chiefs was divided into four groups of villages, having the sons of Lallula (Lalingvoom, Mungpira and Vuta), his grandson Lalsavung and their respective descendents as chiefs. After the death of Lalsavung in 1849, his sons Lalpung, Lal of Chellam and Vonolel, Lal of Champhai became the most important Lushai leaders and ca 1870 Vonolel even seems to have been recognized as principal Lushai chief by the other Syloo chiefs as well as by the British. In 1826 the Lushai - already raiding their other neighbours (Cachar, Manipur, etc) for some time - launched a first raid into British territory. It was followed by other ones and in 1844 the BEIC finally reacted and dispatched a first punitive expedition into the Lushai Hills. Other expeditions took place in : 1861 : The Thangluah were forced to accept British rule, 1871 - 1872 : The Western Lushai (= the villages ruled by descendents of Mungpira and Vuta) were (temporarily) forced to accept British rule, 1889 - 1890 : All Lushai communities were forced to submit to the British. After the British conquest the Lushai Hills were at first divided into two Political Agencies : - the Northern Lushai Hills, subject to the Province of Assam - the Southern Lushai Hills, subject to the Province of Bengal. In 1895 the area was formally annexed to British India and in 1898 both parts were united to form the Lushai Hills District of Assam. NAGA HILLS DISTRICT (part of present-day Nagaland) Many 19th century British considered the Naga - and especially their Angami tribe - as their most powerfull foes on the Indian North Eastern Frontier. Some of their communities were - at least formally - subject to neighbouring states like Assam, Cachar, Manipur or Tripura, but most formed independent village states headed by one or two elected or hereditary chiefs (styled matai, peumah, wanghan, ...) The first direct contact between the British and the Naga took place in 1832 when the Naga raided British Bengal. This was followed by some frontier conflicts that lasted until the 1870's when the British eventually decided to intervene directly in Naga country : - 1873 : British political control was imposed on the Western Naga communities, - 1878 : British capture of Kohima, the leading Naga villege, - 1880 : British capture of the fort of Konoma. Although some fighting continued until the early 20th century, Naga power was broken. Relations with the Naga were entrusted to the administrators of Cachar until 1866, when a separate Naga Hills District was created. After the events of 1878 - 1880 Britsih Nagaland was divided into 3 zones : - zone A (West) : under direct British administration, - zone B (Central) : under British political control (without intervention in the internal affairs of the communities). Later this zone was gradually integrated into zone A. - zone C (East) : under restricted British political control (intervention only in the case of major disturbances) British Administrators of the Naga Hills District Political Officers 1869 - 1875 Capt. John Butler 1875 - 1879 Guybon Henry Damant Deputy Commissioners 1879 - 1881 T. Mitchell 1881 - 1894 R. B. McCabe 1894 - 1899 Capt. Albert Edward Woods 1862 - 1938 1900 - 1907 William James Reid 1871 - 1939 1907 - 1908 A. W. Davis 1908 - 1912 LtCol. Albert Edward Woods (2x) 1912 - 1913 J. K. Webster 1913 - 1917 H. C. Bernera 1917 - 1935 John Henry Hutton 1885 - 1968 1935 - 1937 James Philip Mills 1890 - 1960 1937 - 1947 Charles Ridley Pawsey 1894 - 1972 Sub Divisional Officers (in charge of the "B" and "C" zones) 1880 1882 Hinde 1882 1883 Fasson 1883 1886 Broriek 1886 1890 A. E. Davie 1890 1893 J. M. C. Muspratt 1892 1894 P. S. R. Anley 1894 1897 A. E. H. Shutteworth 1897 1900 E. D. Savi 1900 1905 Neel Williamson 1905 1909 W. C. M. Dundas 1909 1911 J. Needham 1911 1912 C. H. Bell 1912 - 1914 W.illiam Shaw 1914 1917 John Henry Hutton s.a. 1918 1921 James Philip Mills s.a. 1921 - 1922 H. G. Dennehy 1922 1924 James Philip Mills (2x) 1924 1926 Charles Ridley Pawsey s.a. 1926 N. L. Bor 1926 James Philip Mills (3x) 1926 1927 Charles Ridley Pawsey (2x) 1927 1928 Capt. G. S. Lightfoot 1928 1929 Charles Ridley Pawsey (3x) 1929 1932 S V. Lloyd Ress 1932 1933 J. P. Stewart 1933 1935 N. T. D. Lambert 1935 1936 H. Blah 1936 1937 W. J. Smith 1937 - 1939 H. Blah (2x) 1937 1944 P. Adam 1944 1946 H. Blah (3x) 1946 1947 P. Adam (2x) Naga Nationalist Movements and Leaders The Kabui Kacha Naga Movement The Haraka Cult - a synthesis of traditional Naga Animism and Christianism - was founded in 1925 by Jodanang, a former soldier of the British army in Mesopotamia. The number of adherents of the new cult gradually increased - especially among the Kabui and Kacha tribes - and in 1929 Jodagang proclaimed himself "Messiah King of the Kabui Kacha Kingdom" (Kabui Kacha Raj). At first directed against the traditional enemies of both tribes (the Agnami Naga, the British and the Kuki), the movement - operating in Manipur and in the Cachar and Naga Hills Districts - soon evolved into a nationalist movement calling for the unification of all Naga and the formation of an independent Naga Kingdom (Naga Raj). The British then intervened and in 1931 Jodagang was captured and executed. His successor as head of the movement was his compagnon Rani (Queen) Gaidinlu°. She was arrested in 1932 together with most other leaders. The movement now gradually lost its influence, but some agitation continued until 1940. The Naga Club, the Naga Hills District Council and the Naga National Council In 1918 Naga soldiers returning from France and British Officials - soon joined by traditional chiefs - founded the Naga Club. Initially the Club was only concerned with the welfare of the Naga, but later it also adopted a political program and in 1929 it issued a proclamation calling for the administrative separation of the Naga Hills from Assam and the restoration of Naga independence as soon as the British left India. In 1945 the Naga Club was transformed into the Naga Hills District Council, which became the Naga National Council (NNC) in 1946 . Like the Naga Club the NCC advocated complete independence and on 14 Aug 1947 - one day before India did - the NCC unilaterally proclaimed the Independent State of Nagalim, hereby initiating a still ongoing (2006) troubled period. Presidents of the NCC 1946 1947 Shri T. Aliba Imti 1919 1947 Mhondamo Kithan In March - June 1944 the Naga Hills District was briefly occupied by Japanese and Free Indian forces (See here) (4) (4) Part of the Naga led by Angami Zapu Phizo (1900 - 1990) the future historical leader of the Naga independence movement - joineed the Indian National Army NORTH CACHAR HILLS When the Northern Kingdom of Cachar was annexed by the British in 1834 - 1854, its territory became the Asalu sub-division of the Nagaon District. Asaku sub-division was abolished in 1867 and North Cachar was divided between the Cachar, Khasi and Jaintia and Nagaon districts. In 1880 a North Cachar sub-division - which became an excluded area in 1935/1937 - was revived within the Cachar District. Its population consisted of Cachari, Kuki, Naga and others. NORTH EASTERN FRONTIER TRACTS The areas north of the kingdom of Assam and of Nagaland were inhabited by various ethnic groups (the Dafla, the Miri, the Singhpo, ...). They lived in independent villages headed by elected or hereditary chiefs (usually styled "Gam"). Some of them were nominally subject to Assam (the Abor, the Dafla, ...) or were in political relations with Tibet (the Aka, the Mishmi) or China (the Mishmi), giving these two states later an excuse to claim the area in competition with the British. (5) The British conquest of the region started after the occupation of Assam in 1826. Until ca 1900 From the 1830's to 1914 (s.b.), responsability for northern affairs was entrusted to the administrators of the three northern Assamese frontier districts (Darrang, Lakhimpur and Sibsager) (6) In this period the main - if not only - concerns of the British were the keeping of (a semblance) of peace in the area and the prevention of raids into Assam. To achieve this they : - at first continued the payment of the traditional "posa" (ramson or blackmail), payed before by the Ahom kings. Later they replaced this by the payment of treaty based annual subsidies (Treaties with the Aka in 1842, with the Minyong Abor in 1863, with the Bor-Abor in 1866, with the Dafla in 1875, ...) - sent periodic punitive expeditions into the area (expedions and wars against the Abor 1848, 1859, 1862, 1881, 1894, 1903, 1912; against the Aka 1835 - 1842, 1884 - 1888, 1914; against the Mishmi 1855,1899 - 1900; against the Dafla 1874, etc) Since ca 1900 Ca 1900 British-Indian officials - in search of a secure northern frontier - and tea planters - looking for new lands for their plantations - both started claiming a more effcetive control over the area. Several expeditions were then sent to the region and as a result : - the last major opponents to British rule were submitted (the Abor in 1912, the Aka in 1914), - at the Simla Conference of 1914 Tibet gave up its above mentioned claims on most of the contested territory, (7) - the area was included in the province of Assam (1914) and organized into three "Frontier Tracts" headed by political agents under the direct authority of the chief administrator of Assam : - the Central and Eastern Sections North Frontier Tract (renamed Sadiya Frontier Tract in 1919), - the Western Section North Frontier Tract (renamed Balipara Frontier Tract in 1919), - the Lakhimpur Frontier Tract. (8) (5) The most important of these groups were the Abor and the Aka The Aka seem to have formed a larger state when Tagi Raja, chief of the Kapachor section (1... - 1870, r. 1... - 1870) and his son Mehdi Raja (r. 1870 - ....) established their supremacy over the other Aka groups as well as over the neighbouring Miji. (6) In 1882 an Assistant Political Agent was appointed to coordinate British activities on the frontier. The incumbents were : 1882 - 1905 Jacks Francis Needham 1905 - 1911 Noel Williamson 18.. - 1911 1911 - 1914 ... (7) China, the overlord of Tibet did not recognize the new frontier (the so- called MacMahon Line) and continued to claim "Southern Tibet". Befoore the formal annexation, the British had considered the area as a kind of protected zone of influence - separated from China and Tibet by an ill-defined "Outer Line" - to which the Inner Line regulations of 1873 were extended in 1880. (8) Later changes included : - 1943 : a 4th Frontier Tract (Turap) was created out of parts of Sadiya and Lakhimpur - 1946 : Balipara was divided into : - the Sela Subagency - the Subansiri Area. The administration remained embryonic until WWII, when the fear for the Japanese advanxe in the region incited the British to restructure it. PARTIALLY EXCLUDED AREAS KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS DISTRICT (part of present-day Meghalaya) The Khasi and Jaintia Hills District was established in 1854. It included : - all territories - except one (9) - ceded by the Khasi Hill States (s.b.) in the early 1830's, - the territory of the former Kingdom of Cachar, annexed in 1832 (s.a.) (9) Not considered as partially excluded and therefore under the authority of the provincial government was the enclave Shillong, the capital of Assam since 1874, constructed in an area ceded by the Khasi. GARO HILLS DISTRICT (part of present-day Meghalaya) When the British assumed power over Bengal in 1765, they soon entered into conflict with the Garo tribes, who were raiding the eastern frontier of Bengal since ancient times. In the course of the following years many Garo village chiefs (nokma) were forced to recognize British supremacy and after a major conflict in 1822, the Garo tribes were divided into : - the Zamindari Garo : subject to the British administration, - the Maluα (or tributary Garo) : under British overlordship, - the Be-Maluα (or free Garo) : independent. Conflicts continued until the late 1860's, when the Garo Hills were separated from the Goalpara district and transformed into the separate Garo Hils District (1869). Except for some minor incidents (1870 - 1871, 1875, 1877 and 1881 - 1882) the area thereafter remained peacefull until the end of British rule. MIKIR HILLS TRACT To escape Jaintia rule, many Mikir - now known as Karbi - migrated to the East in the course of the 17th and 18th century and settled in the Ahom Kingdom and in the (Northern) Cachar Kingdom, where they were subject to Naga raids. The Mikir clans - considered as the most peaceful of the peoples of the North East - came under British rule between 1835 (annexation of Jaintia) and 1854 (annexation of the Northern Cachar Kingdom). Except for a small incident in 1863, they always remained loyal to the Britsih even providing them with some support during the Naga campaigns. Unlike other peoples in the area they were not regrouped into a separate district, but remained divided among the Khasi and Jaintia District and the Districts of Cachar, Nagaon and Sibsager. In 1925/1937 the Mikir area in the two last districts - the so-called Mikir Hills Tract - became a partially exluded area.
PRINCELY STATES IN RELATION WITH THE PROVINCE OF ASSAM
Of all major states that had existed in the Assamese region before the arrival of the British 26 managed to survive until 1947 : - the 25 Khasi Hill States - ManipurTHE KHASI HILL STATES
(Information given until the formal merger with Assam in 1950) Unlike the Eastern Khasi communities - who were united under the authority of the Kingdom of Jaintia - the Western Khasi communities didn't form one single state. Instead, they were regrouped into several small states, which were - formally at least - tributary to the Ahom Kingdom of Assam. (1) Although the British were already confronted with Khasi raids in the 1770's, direct relations between the BEIC and the Khasi states only started in 1819 when U Tirot Singh, Syiem of Nongkhlaw and head of the Khasi Confederacy he had created, signed an alliance treaty with the British against the Burmese. New treaties were signed with different states after the conquest of Assam in 1826, but two years later the fear for a complete annexation of the Khasi area to British India resulted in the so-called Anglo-Khasi War, which ended with the capture of U Tirot Singh in 1833. After their victory the British divided Western Khasi Land into : - 25 recognized states in relation with British India : - 5 semi-independent states : - Khyrim - Nongstoin - Langrin - Sohra - Nongspung - 20 dependent states : - Bhowal - Mawsynram - Dwara Nongtyrnem - Mylliem - Jirang - Myriaw - Lyngiong - Nobosohphoh - Maharam - Nongkhlaw - Malaysohmat - Nonglwai - Mawiang - Pam Samgut - Mawdon - Rambrai - Mawlong - Shella - Mawphlang - Sohiong (2) - "British Khasiland" : 31 (?) villages ceded by the states and annexed to British India , becoming part of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills District (s.a.) in 1854. THE FEDERATION OF KHASI STATES The Federation of Khasi States - intended to defend the interests of the Khasi in the new Indian political structire prepared by the British - was estblished by the Khasi leaders in 1933. As it was at first not formally recognized by the British and as it had no funds nor good infrastructure, it largely existed on paper only for several years. Things changed after WWII - when the British withdrawal from India became obvious - and in 1946 the federation really started to function [Chairman : U Olim Singh, Syiem of Khyrim (1903 - ....)]. After the British withdrawal the Khasi states agreed to acceed to the new Indian state (3). They retained their previous position of princely states, only foreign affairs, defence and communications being taken over by the Indian Government. Thi situation lasted until 1950 when the Federation of Khasi States and the Khasi and Jaintia Hills District (s.a.) were united to form the new Assamese United Khasi and Jaintia Hills District. (1) The traditional number of ancient Western Khasi States was fixed at 30 [Hence the name Ka Ri Ki Laiphewsyiem (Land of the 30 Chiefs) given to the area)], but in fact there is no general agreement on the exact number. According to British sources, the most important seem to have been by the 1820's : - Bhowal (Phowal) - Mokut-Bungnong - Boko - Mylliem - Dimah - Myriaw - Jirang - Nobosohphoh - Jyrngam - Nongkhlaw (Ossimlee) - Khyrim - Nonglong - Langrin - Nongpoh - Lyngiong - Nongspung - Maharam - Nongstoin - Malaysohmat - Nongwah - Mawiang - Panbari-Nongkumah - Mawlong - Rambrai - Mawmluh - Shella - Mawphlang - Shillong - Mawsmai - Sohiong - Mawsynram - Sohra (Cherra) The Khasi states were ruled by secular chiefs (Syiem), priests (Lyngdoh) or in one case - the Shella Confederacy - by a council of 43 chiefs headed by the Wahadadar. (2) The semi-independent states were states which had joined with the British during the war and had signed a formal treaty with them. Their rulers enjoyed full judicial control over their own subjects The dependent states were created out of states which had opposed British conquest. Some of them were pre-existing states which were restored after the British victory, while others were new states created out of defeated states. They were not in a formal treaty relationship with the British. Their rulers only enjoyed a restricted judicial control over their subjects and had to refer to the British representative for all important matters. (Some non-recognized states seem to have survived too) (3) Most states acceded to India on Dec 15 1947. The others followed on Jan 11 1948 (Nobosohphoh), Mar 10 1948 (Mawlong), Mar 17 1948 (Rambrai) and Mar 19 1948 (Nongstoin). The accession was confirmed by the Indian authorities on Aug 17 1948. __________________________________________________________________________________BRITISH REPRESENTATIVES
Political Agents (also in charge of the annexed parts of Western Khasiland and Jaintia) 1835 - 1853 LtCol. ... Lister 1853 - 1854 Lt. ... Cave* The Political Agency was abolished in 1854 and the chief administrators of Assam (s.a.) assumed direct responsibility for the area. They were represented locally by the administrators of the Khasi and Jaintia Hills District (s.a.) __________________________________________________________________________________INDIAN REPRESENTATIVES
Dominion Agents(s) (subordinated to the Governot of Assam) [...?] 194. - 1950 N. N. Phukan ___________________________________________________________________________________HEADS OF STATE
(of the five semi-independent states only) KHYRIM Syiem 1815 - 1829 U Bor Manik II 1830 - 1858 U Syiem Manik 1... - 1858 1858 - 1861 none 1861 - 1871 U Rabon Singh 1871 - 1903 U Khur Singh 1843 - 1903 1903 - 1920 U Dakhor Singh 18.. - 1920 1920 - 195. U Olim Singh, also president of the Federation of Khasi States 1946 - 1950 s.a. LANGRIN Syiem 182. - 1863 U Syndor 1864 - 1874 U Mit 1... - 1874 1874 - 1876 U Bor 1850 - 1876 1876 - 1896 U Ngoi 1896 - 1910 U Langot 18.. - 1910 1910 - 19.. U Pyrba 1890 - 19.. - 1950 U Doli Singh, nephew NONGSPUNG Syiem 18.. - 18.. U Dhur Singh 18.. - 1871 U Phanblang 1... - 1871 1872 - 1877 U Step, nephew 1877 - 1885 U Syntiew, brother 1885 - 19.. U Pyrba Singh 1860 - 19.. - 19.. U Jeromen NONGSTOIN Syiem 18.. - 18.. U Mit 1862 - 1878 U Don Singh 1878 - 1890 U Borson 1890 - 1891 U Ji 1891 - 1894 U Mudon 1844 - 1894 1894 - 1897 U Rabon, brother 18.. - 1897 1897 - 1901 U Don 18.. - 1901 1901 - 1926 U Suna 18.. - 1926 1926 - 1964 U Sib 1... - 1964 SOHRA (CHERRA) Syiem 18.. - 18.. U Duwan Singh 18.. - 1856 U Suba Singh 1... - 1856 1856 - 1857 U Ram Singh 1... - 1857 1857 - 1901 U Hajon Manik 1833 - 1901 1901 - 1903 none 1903 - 1918 U Roba Singh 18.. - 1918 1918 - 1963 U Join Manik 1883 - 1963
MANIPUR
(Information given until the formal merger with India in 1949) Manipur (Originally in Man. : Meithei Liapak/Land of the Meithei) is said to have been founded in the 1st century. (1) The state had its moment of glory during the reign of Ningthou Pamheiba (or Raja Gharib Nawaz, 1690 - 1754 r. : 1708 - 1754) when Manipuri armies occupied part of the Kingdom of Ava (now Myanmar) and even reached the Burmese capital. Later the Meithei power declined however and by the early 19th century the kingdom had actually fallen into anarchy as a result of succession quarrels. The Kingdom now was easy prey for the Burmese who conquered it in 1819. In 1824 the exiled Manipuri leader signed an alliance treaty with the British East India Company (BEIC) and with its help liberated his country in 1825. At first there was little British interference in the country's affairs, but things changed after the events of 1890 - 1891 (2) : - the British agent was granted some controlling rights over Manipuri affairs, - the Kangla fortress and some other parts of the capital Imphal became a British possession, known as the "British Reserve", - the British gained direct control over the hill areas. In March - June 1944 parts of Manipur were briefly occupied by Japanese and Free Indian forces (See here) On Aug 11 1947 - a few days before the end of British rule (Aug 15 1947) - Manipur agreed to acceed to the new Indian state : - it remazined a selfgoverning princely state, only foreign affairs, defence and communications being taken over by India, - the former "British Reserve" was placed under the Indian Ministry of Defence, - the hill areas were annexed to Assam. In the course of the following months the powers of the Manipuri authorities were gradually curtailled. Invoking the possibility of a communist takeover, the Indian government finally forced the maharaja to surrender his last remaining powers on Oct 15 1949. Manipur was now annexed to (formally : merged with) India and became a "Part C State". (1) The Meithei - the ruling ethny of the country - seem to have been related to the Thai. As the Thai only migrated to the South in the Middle Ages, it can not be excluded that the Meithei state also only emerged in that period. In the course of the 18th century the country started to be "indianized" : - the Buddhist religion was replaced by Hinduism, - the Manupuri script was gradually replaced by the Bengali, - Indian names started to be used for names and styles, etc. (2) In this first period Manipur briefly expanded its authority over parts of the Kingdom of Ava, as well as in Nagaland. The British eventually stopped this expansion. Events of 1890 - 1891 : 1890 Sep 21 : Raja Sura Chandra Singh was deposed by his brother Senapati (Great Commander-in-Chief) Tikendrajit Singh (1858 - 1891) and replaced by his other brother Kula Chandra Singh (s.b.). The British authorities recognized the new ruler, but at the same time asked for the the expulsion of Tikendrajit Singh, whose growing power was seen as a danger to British influence. 1891 Apr 24 : During the ensuing negociations, Chief Commissioner Quinton (s.a.) and Political Agent Grimwood (s.b.) were captured and executed on order of Tikendrajit Singh. Apr 27 : A British army occupied the capital Imphal. Kula Chandra Singh was deposed, Tikendrajit Singh was executed and Manipur was annexed to British India. Sep 22 : The Kingdom of Manipur was restored under British control. Chura Chandra Singh, the new Raja (s.b.), was enthroned on Apr 29 1892. __________________________________________________________________________________BRITISH REPRESENTATIVES
Political Agents 1835 - 1844 Lt. George Gordon 1844 - 1863 LtCol. William McCulloch 1816 - 1885 1863 - 1865 ... Dillon 1865 - 1867 LtCol. William McCulloch (2x) 1867 - 1875 R. Brown 1875 - 1877 Guybon Henry Damant* 1846 - 1879 1877 - 1886 Col. Sir James Johnstone 1841 - 1895 1886 ... Trotter* 1886 Walter Haiks* 1886 - 1891 ... St. Clair Grinwood 18.. - 1891 Commander of the British Manipur Field Force 1891 MajGen. Sir Henry Collett 1836 - 1901 Chief Political Officer 1891 H. St. P. John Maxwell Political Agents 1892 - 1893 H. St. P. John Maxwell s.a. 1893 - 1895 A. Porteous* 1895 - 1896 H. St. P. John Maxwell (2x) 1896 - 1898 Henry Walter George Cole* 1866 - 1932 1898 - 1899 A. Porteous* (2x) 1899 - 1902 H. St. P. John Maxwell (3x) 1902 - 1904 Capt. Albert Edward Woods s.a. 1904 - 1905 H. St. P. John Maxwell (4x) 1905 - 1908 John Shakespear 1861 - 1942 1908 - 1909 A. W. Davis 1909 - 1914 John Shakespear (2x) 1914 - 1917 LtCol. Sir Henry Walter George Cole (2x) 1917 - 1918 John Comyn Higgins 1882 - 1952 1918 - 1920 William Alexander Cosgrave 1879 - 1952 1920 - 1922 L. O. Clarke 1922 Christopher Gimson* 1886 - 1975 1922 - 1924 L. O. Clarke (2x) 1924 - 1928 John Comyn Higgins 1928 C. G. Crawford* 1928 - 1933 John Comyn Higgins (2x) 1933 - 1938 Christopher Gimson (2x) 1938 - 1947 Gerald Pakenham Stewart (captured by the Japanese during WWII, possibly replaced by Grimson during his captivity) __________________________________________________________________________________INDIAN REPRESENTATIVES
Dominion Agents (subordinated to the Governor of Assam) 1947 Gerald Pakenham Stewart s.a. 1947 - 1948 Shri Debeswar Sharma 1948 : Office of Dominion Agent abolished. The governor of Assam assumed direct responsability of Manipur affairs. He was locally represented by a Dewan. 1948 - 1949 Shri Maharaj Kumar Priyabrata Singh, brother of Maharaja Bodh Chandra Singh (s.b.), also Chief Minister 1911 - 2005 1949 MajGen. Rawal Amar Singh, took full control of the Manipuri administration, continued as Chief Commissioner after the annexation __________________________________________________________________________________HEADS OF STATE
(entitled to 11 gun salutes in 1947) Rajas (the traditional native style "Ningthou" was gradually replaced by the Indian style "Raja") House of Ningthou Pamheiba/Raja Gharib Nawaz (ruled since 1708) 1825 - 1834 Gambhir (Ganavira) Singh, in 1819 one of the three exiled Manipuri leaders de facto ruling Southern Cachar, since 1823 sole leader of the exiled Manipuri 1... - 1834 1834 - 1844 Chandra Kirti Singh, son, left the country after the failed murder attempt on the regent 1831 - 1886 Regent during the minority of the Raja 1834 - 1844 Nara Singh, great grandson of Raja Gharib Nawaz (s.a.) 1... - 1850 1844 - 1850 Nara Singh, before regent, seized power aftere a falied attempt of the Queen mother to have him murdered s.a. 1850 Devendra Singh, brother, expelled, continued a guerilla war until 1866 1... - 1871 1850 - 1886 Chandra Kirti Singh (2x) 1886 - 1890 Sura Chandra Singh, son, forced to abdicate, thereafter in exile in British India 1890 - 1891 Kula Chandra Singh, brother, usurpator, deposed by the British and exiled to British India 18.. - 1934 1891 - 1892 interregnum (direct British rule) 1892 - 1918 Chura Chandra Singh, great grandson of Raja Nara Singh (s.a.) 1885 - 1941 Superintendents of the State during the minority of the Raja 1892 - 1907 the British Political Agents s.a. Maharaja House of Ningthou Pamheiba/Raja Gharib Nawaz 1918 - 1941 Sir Chura Chandra Singh s.a. 1941 - 1949 Bodha Chandra Singh, son 1909 - 1955 __________________________________________________________________________________MINISTERS
President of the Interim Council 1947 Frank F. Pearson Chief Minister 1947 - 1949 Shri Maharaj Kumar Priyabrata Singh, 1948 - 1949 also Dewan s.a.
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