By T.R.

Introduction

"The history of the birth of the Anabaptist movement in the Netherlands, from where the people became known as Mennonites, is about the flow of ideas into a society ready for change." (Dyck; An Introduction to Mennonite History; pg. 99). This quote depicts why these people began a new movement. They felt there were too many problems with the way Luther was reforming so they sought to change them. Anabaptists were given their name by their opposers to indicate that they were ‘rebaptizers'. Their opposition, which included both Catholics and Protestants, was against their being baptized a second time and considered them heretics based on ancient Roman laws that were originally made to persecute the Donatists. This second baptism was the chief difference between the Reformers who followed Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin and those that were Anabaptists. The baptism of an infant was not accepted by the Anabaptists because they felt that an individual must be responsible to understand and have faith in the sacrament's spirituality (Keeney; The Development of Dutch Anabaptist Thought and Practice; pg. 75). The other Reformers saw the baptism of an infant as a spirituality that lies within the child but is dormant to the child's knowledge for the time being. After several years that saw much bloodshed due to the intolerance of this movement a man named Menno Simons became involved with the movement and brought it back to a non-violent one. Menno became a key figure in the Anabaptist movement and his followers became known as ‘Mennonites'. Menno brought a strict adherence to the scriptures and then later wrote an important book to his people as well. It is named the Fundamentboek or The Foundation of Christian Doctrine. Published in 1539/1540 it "seems to be the lodgestone for the churches of Menno's fellowship." (Brunk; Menno Simons: A Reappraisal; pg. 20). Menno's discipleship was seen as a manifestation of faith and love that each individual felt. Menno felt that gatherings should be voluntary in which each individual did it for their loyalty to Christ. It is amazing how Menno and the Mennonite movement managed to flourish during this time of persecution when everything except martyrdom was done in secrecy. The devotion and courage of these people was a testament to their faith.

1) The Early Anabaptists

The very first Anabaptists were probably Conrad Grebel and George Blaurock. The two of them along with a number of other ‘brethren' felt that Zwingli was not continuing in a coarse of action that would be suitable to their desires. These early Anabaptists, and others who followed, never denied the fact that they originated because of Reformers such as Zwingli and Luther but rather admitted that they were simply fixing any imperfections that lay within those reforms. Blaurock was baptized (or ‘rebaptized') on January 21, 1525 in Zurich. Thus began the Anabaptist movement. The Anabaptists were originally given their name by their opposers to point out the ancient heresy of being baptized twice. Hence the ‘rebaptizers'. This was not quite an accurate name though because the Anabaptist felt that they were not being rebaptized, but rather that their infant baptism was invalid (Gonzalez; The Story of Christianity, vol. II; pg.55). Another important difference between the Reformers and Anabaptists was the relation, or non-relation, between the state and the faith. The Reformers thought that the state and the church should live side by side while the Anabaptists felt that society and faith were totally separate from each other: "the church is a voluntary community, totally distinct from the civil community" (Gonzalez; The Story of Christianity, vol.II;pg.56). Ultimately they felt that the authority of scripture took precedence over the authority of the government. Another thing that the Anabaptists did that was unique was the practice of footwashing. Footwashing showed that they were humble to God and that they were servants to God and others around them. This attitude was predominant in the movement. Women, the poor, and the ignorant were seen as being equally as important as the men, the rich, and the learned (Gonzalez; The Story of Christianity, vol.II; pg. 56).

A) Persecution of the Anabaptists

The Anabaptists of the sixteenth century, especially the ones early in the development of the movement, underwent violent and persistent persecution. They were seen as heretics (as well as seditionists in some areas) because of their belief in baptizing adults into their faith. The second baptism was deemed a hersy by ancient Roman law and was punishable by death. The opposers of this new following did not know enough about it, and so, likely out of fear, thought the Anabaptists to be subversive, yet, ironically, they were totally against any subversive acts. This fear was another reason that the opposers wanted to persecute the movement. In 1525, when the movement first began, the Swiss Catholics began condemning the Anabaptists to death. The following year the Council of Government of Zurich followed suit. In 1528 Charles V reestablished the ancient Roman law that ordered death to anyone who was baptized a second time (Gonzalez; The Story of Christianity, vol.II; pg.56). There were many martyrs in the Anabaptist movement, as many as 2500 by some estimates. Many of the people who were martyred were first tortured. They were put on the rack so that their captors could try and draw out information from them such as names of leaders or meeting places, but few gave any information. With each martyr the strength of the movement seemed to increase. In fact, the people who were doing the executing would try and do it privately so that the martyr could not spread the word from the platform before being killed. There were many methods by which the opposers executed the men and women such as being hanged, beheading, burning at the stake, or being drawn and quartered. Although each of these methods seems painful and barbaric, it is quite evident that the most humane way of execution, drowning, was also the most ironic. It is ironic that the martyrs would be killed by the same substance that had earlier ‘saved' them. Eventually the persecution enveloped the original leaders of the movement and a second generation of leaders took over. Eventually led by John Matthys and John Leiden they became more revolutionary.

B) The Revolutionary Anabaptists

When the persecution took the first generation of Anabaptist leaders, it left room for a second generation of more revolution minded leaders to take their place. The first new leader was Melchior Hoffman, and although he was not trying to start a revolution, he did ultimately spark one when he went to Strassburg. There he began announcing that the end was near and that it would come after he had been imprisoned for six months. This ‘announcement' caused people to flock to Strassburg, which they were hoping was going to be the ‘New Jerusalem'. When he was finally imprisoned even more people arrived in the city. When the six months of his imprisonment comes and goes without any sign of the end it leaves the door open for John Matthys and John Leiden to command the Anabaptist movement. They decide to ‘move' the New Jerusalem to Munster because of that cities tolerance towards the Anabaptists. With Matthys and Leiden comes a change towards violence and they begin to turn the Anabaptists completely into revolutionaries. They take over Munster and expel all of the Catholics as well as the bishop (Dyck; An Introduction to Mennonite History; pg.102). The bishop remains outside of the city and organizes an army to cut off the supplies to the city. Any Anabaptist caught coming or going to the city was killed. Matthys is killed in a confrontation and Leiden takes over. Leiden declares polygamy to be rightful because of the dwindling number of men in the city (Gonzalez; The Story of Christianity; pg. 58). Both sides dwindle eventually (the Anabaptists dwindle because of their routine killings and the Catholic army dwindles because the bishop can't afford it anymore), there is a small battle which the Anabaptists win and Leiden declares himself ‘King of New Jerusalem'. Later a traitor reopens the gates and lets the bishop back in. The bishop then captures Leiden and his two lieutenants and executes them. This is the ultimate fall of Munster.

2) Menno Simons and the Mennonites

"Menno Simons was born in Witmarsum, a small village in the northern Dutch province of Friesland" (Dyck; An Introduction to Mennonite History; pg. 105). He is ordained a Dutch Catholic priest in 1524 and spent approximately ten years at this position, the last few being in his hometown of Witmarsum. It is not exactly clear when Menno was baptized and what it was that ultimately turned him over to the Anabaptist movement. "His autobiography says either February, 1535 after the uprising in Groningen; or April, 1535 after the occupation of Oldeklooster at which time his brother Peter Simons of Tirns was hanged as one of the Munsterite insurgents." (Brunk; Menno Simons: A Reappraisal; pg. 45). This does not make sense in some respects though because he does not quit the priesthood until January 12, 1536. It seems hard to believe that he could keep this hidden for nine months during the Inquisition. The one sure thing that we do know about his baptism is that it was performed by Obbe Philips. After his baptism, Menno spends one full year in seclusion studying, learning, and analyzing the scripture. When he returns Obbe Philips ordains him as an elder of the church. Unfortunately, Menno has to try not to let anyone know about who ordained him because Obbe lapses from the movement in 1540 and thus would allow for speculation on the validity of Menno's appointment. Menno could have also had trouble gaining people to join or remain in the movement since he had been a Catholic priest but he sidestepped that problem by denouncing his own slowness in breaking away from the Catholic church. Menno published the Fundamentboek in 1539/1540. This writing, also known as The Foundation of Christian Doctrine, outlines the guidelines for true spiritual living according to Menno. Menno held four main ideals or beliefs within the Anabaptist faith. They were: 1) rejection of infant baptism; 2) the need for discipleship; 3) Christians should not occupy civic posts; and 4) the need for continual pacifism. Menno maintained that pacifism was the most important part of true Christianity.

A) Pacifism

The failure in Munster was blamed on the failure of the Anabaptists to remain pacified. Pacifism was the one true aspect of the Anabaptists and they had not followed it and they felt that they were paying for this mistake. After the fall of Munster there was an effort to return to the pacifist ways of before. This new movement was originally started by Obbe and Dirk Philips and was originally carried on by Menno and the Mennonites. The pacifist way helped to return the Anabaptists back to where they wanted to be, spiritually speaking. Menno was convinced that pacifism was the most important aspect of Christianity, and whether he was right or wrong it would be apparent that it is at least very important to the Anabaptist movement.

B) The Fundamentboek

The Fundamentboek, or The Foundation of Christian Doctrine, is absolutely the most significant writing within the Anabaptist movement, and especially to the Mennonites in particular. As mentioned previously it is the "lodgestone for the churches of Menno's fellowship" (Brunk; Menno Simons: A Reappraisal; pg. 20). This is seen as soon as the book is published. It is the key piece in holding the peaceful Anabaptist movement together when Obbe Philips leaves the movement ( Keeney; The Development of Dutch Anabaptist Thought and Practice; pg. 202). In the Fundamentboek Menno outlines many examples of how to be a true Anabaptist or Mennonite. One such example is the call to true preachers. A true preacher must have three qualities: 1) he must be called by God and a believing congregation; 2) preaching must be purely biblical (no human theology); and 3) must lead a blameless life (this is impossible but you must still try). (Brunk; Menno Simons: A Reappraisal; pg. 40). In the Fundamentboek he also outlines his beliefs about civic posts compared to the views of Christianity.

C) Civic Posts Menno was often heard violently denouncing the civic leaders of his time. He did this because of his belief that true Christians should not occupy any position that required them to take an oath, especially those of a civic nature. He felt that rulers were ignorant of God's will and thus they ruled badly. Although he preached against the rulers of the time he still insisted that his followers follow civic law as long as it wasn't contrary to the scripture. Even though he denounced the rulers, and said that Christians should not rule, he did not question the faith of the rulers. However, he warned them that "they are subject to the Ruler of rulers" (Brunk; Menno Simons: A Reappraisal; pg. 28). He believed that true Christians should focus more on discipline of their faith rather than worrying about civic matters.

D) Discipleship

Discipleship, or ‘Novolging Christi' as it was known, was a manifestation of faith and love that must be shown voluntarily. It was a gathering in which the individual came to show his or her loyalty to Christ and show their love for each other (Keeney; The Development of Dutch Anabaptist Thought and Practice; pg. 121). Menno attempted to apply it in practical ways and to take seriously the teachings of Jesus Christ as a guide to life.

E) The Baptism and Meaning of the Sacrament Menno felt that there was a need for emphasis on both the internal and external meanings of the sacrament of baptism. He felt that one could not place his trust in the outward ceremony by itself but must also be responsible to understand and have faith in the sacraments spirituality. He treats the Sacraments as merely ‘signs' or ‘symbols'. He did feel, however, that the sacraments not only symbolized the experience but also deepened it. Therefore, he felt that infant baptism was an empty symbol (Keeney; The Development of Dutch Anabaptist Thought and Practice; pg. 75). The Anabaptists saw baptism as something that must be undertaken by an adult willing to confess their faith publicly. They were to use it as a testament to a spiritual transformation which had already occurred within themselves. Menno did not consider children to be excluded from the Kingdom of God, but felt that they were not yet ready or obedient enough to be baptized, and therefore had to wait until adulthood.

3) The Meaning of Menno Simons Today

A) 1885-1950 The Complete Works of Menno Simons, published by John F. Funk in 1871 showed how Menno's writings were appropriate for that era, especially in light of the great worldly opposition of Christ. "This indicated that Menno had Attained a new status among Mennonites and others as a rising middle class people." (Brunk; Menno Simons: A Reappraisal; pg. 168).

B) 1950-Current (The Call for Radical Discipleship) Mennonites are constantly reminded today about Menno's call to discipleship in which genuine repentance and faith, as well as obedience to Christ and His word are key elements. Mennonites today need to be clear on three points: "first, to rediscover the Anabaptist vision in terms of discipleship is not the same as to recover it; second,... we tend to regard discipleship as a contingent issue rather than a central one; ... third, and most subtle of all, as Christians we avoid confrontation by favoring religious expressions that stress piety rather than ethical demands." (Brunk; Menno Simons: A Reappraisal; pg.169). It is easier to join an Evangelical institution of nondenominational character that involves more nationalistic and political activities while associating itself with fundamentalism.

Conclusion

There were several key differences between the Anabaptist movement and other reforming movements, but without a doubt the biggest difference between them was the view of baptism. The Anabaptist view of waiting until adulthood was seen as heretical and unnecessary by the other churches of the time, yet, it remained a crucial piece to the development of the Anabaptist movement. It was unfortunate that this single most crucial piece also led to the biggest problems that the Anabaptists were forced to face. Menno Simons realized the importance of baptism in adulthood, but since he also knew that his followers realized it as well he did not have to dwell on it. Rather he saw further into the future and wrote and taught about how to be a good Christian. In conclusion it may be fitting to use a quote from Menno Simons Himself: This is my only joy and heart's desire: to extend the Kingdom of God, reveal the truth, reprove sin, teach righteousness, feed hungry souls with the word of the Lord, lead the straying sheep into the right path, and gain many souls to the hand through his Spirit, Power, and Grace. So would I carry on my weakness as He taught me, who has purchased me, a miserable sinner, with His crimson blood, and has given me this my mind by the Gospel of His Grace namely Jesus Christ. (Complete Writings of Menno Simons, pg. 189. Cited by Brunk in Menno Simons: A Reappraisal; pg. 178) This quote shows us that Menno Simons understood the direction of his life and possibly stated the direction of many before him. These are the words that Menno Simons lived by and these are the words which any Mennonite today can live by.

Bibliography

William Echard Keeney. The Development of Dutch Anabaptist Thought and Practice from 1539-1564. Nieuwkoop: De Graaf, 1968.

Menno Simons: A Reappraisal. Eastern Mennonite College: Gerald R. Brunk, 1992.

Justo L. Gonzalez. The Story of Christianity, vol. II. Harper, [c. 1985] An Introduction to Mennonite History, 2nd ed. Herald Press: Cornelius J. Dyck, 1981.