The text of Shiyong Hyangak-bo, the score book of traditional music during the early Choson period
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The text of Shiyong Hyangak-bo, the score book of traditional music during the early Choson period |
Korea is rich in musical culture, and its music is distinctive despite tremendous influences from China. The same is true for Japanese music despite Korean influence. Evidence of these influences can presently be found in the existence of Koreanized-Chinese music called tang-ak in Korea and of Japanized-Korean music called komagaku in Japan. The Korean term tang-ak literally means music from T'ang Dynasty China. Similarly the Japanese term komagaku signifies music from the Koryo Dynasty in Korea.
Korean traditional music can be roughly divided into two major categories, chong-ak and sog-ak: music for the ruling class and for the common people, respectively. Within these two major types are various subcategories that make up the whole of Korean music. Thus, in chong-ak there are two different, but somewhat related meanings. In this broader sense the term refers to the elegant musical style that was considered "right" for the Korean ruling class in terms of Confucian philosophy, and within this broader meaning it also refers to ensemble music for men of high social status outside of the court. In this category, three important terms are a-ak, tang-ak, and hyang-ak. Chong-ak and A-ak can be used interchangeably, in their broader sense, referring to music for the ruling class, which includes tang-ak, hyang-ak, and Confucian ritual music. In its narrower sense A-ak refers to ritual temple music, of which at the present time only one example remains, Munmyoak. Munmyoak is music performed at Munmyo, the shrine where Confucius and his disciples are honored. Tang-ak refers to secular music of both the Chinese T'ang and Sung dynasties, which was altered to become court music after its introduction to Korea. Hyang-ak simply means native Korean music, a noted example of which is Sujech'on, a piece of instrumental music often claimed to be at least 1,300 years old, which would predate the first compilation of Gregorian chants. Court music, a subcategory of chong-ak, includes three types: ritual, banquet, and military music. Ritual music includes Confucian music and royal shrine music, while banquet music is of course music for courtly banquets. Sujech'on is one of the most famous pieces of banquet music.
 'Chongmyo Cheryeak' or the Royal Family Shrine Music |
Music for the upper class consists of a type of ensemble music, p'ungnyu, the most sophisticated Korean lyric song genre; kagok, and the indigenous Korean popular song, sijo. P'ungnyu is an archaic word that formerly meant music in general. Its present literal meaning denotes the state of being in which a man at leisure physically and mentally removes himself from the everyday world into a harmonious mood suitable for the appreciation of poetry, music, and female companionship. When the term is used in the context of Korean classical music, however, it refers to a type of ensemble music for the nobility. One variety of this music, called chul-p'ungnyu, consists mainly of stringed instruments. A second variety, taep'ungnyu, consists mainly of wind instruments, and a third is a combination of the first two. Kagok uses a rhythmic pattern of either a 16 - beat changdan (which literally means "long-short") or its varied form, a 10 beat changdan. Any kagok selection is based on the ujo or kyemyonjo mode, or sometimes on both. Instruments used for accompaniment are the komungo, kayagum, yang-gum, haegum, p'iri and changgo.
 A performance of taegum-chongak |
Sog-ak, music for the commoner includes shaman music, Buddhist music, folk songs, farmers' music called nong-ak, a form of dramatic song called p'ansori, and an instrumental solo music called sanjo. In shaman music, the role of an inspired female shaman priest called a mudang is very important. The mudang plays the part of a medium between the visible world and the supernatural. Singing, dancing, and instrument playing are always involved. One of the most important types of Buddhist music is called pomp'ae, a song of praise to Buddha, and today preserved by only a few priests. To promote this music, the government has designated pomp'ae as an intangible cultural asset and is taking steps to encourage new devotees of the art.
 A performance of kayagum sanjo |
Since Korea traditionally has been an agricultural nation, the life of the farmer has always had significant influence on the musical history of the country. The most interesting characteristic of farmers' music is its 12 different rhythmic patterns called shipich'ae, which are led by a small gong called kkwaenggwari. One of the more appealing types of sog-ak is the sanjo, an instrumental solo piece originally in improvisational style for various instruments: the kayagum, komungo, taegum, haegum, tanso, and p'iri. P'ansori is another musical treasure of leading importance in Korea and can be defined as song in drama, an indigenous opera-like production with one singer storyteller. Within the p'ansori, aniri is the spoken description of the dramatic content between songs, and pallim is the physical motion of the drama.
Traditional Musical Instruments of Korea
 Traditional musical instruments of Korea |
Korea has developed a large number of musical instruments, and total of 60 different kinds now are preserved at the National Classical Music Institute. Fifteen of these are no longer in use, some because of changes in musical fashion, others because of the discontinuance of ceremonies, associated with the royal court. The remaining 45 are all played today, though with varying degrees of frequency.
Following is a brief introduction to the most frequently used of the 14 chordophones, 17 aerophones, 13 idiophones, and 16 membranophones.
Komungo
The komungo is representative of zithers with six strings of twisted silk. The second, third, and fourth strings are stretched over 16 fixed frets and tuned by round pegs, while the other strings are stretched over movable bridges and tuned by moving the bridges to the left or right. The strings are plucked with a bamboo rod (sultae) which is held between the index and middle fingers of the right hand, while the left hand presses on the strings to produce microtones.
Kayagum
The kayagum, which is related to the Chinese cheng and the Japanese koto, is another type of Korean zither. It has 12 silk strings supported by 12 movable bridges. The thumb, index and middle fingers of the right hand pluck the strings, while the index and middle fingers of the left hand touch the strings on the left side of the movable bridges. The tone quality is clear and delicate. The sanjo Kayagum is a small, narrow type of kayagum patterned after the original kayagum called popgum. It is used for the fast fingering of folk music and sanjo music.
Ajaeng
The ajaeng is a bowed seven-stringed zither. Played with a resined bow made of forsythia wood, the tone of the ajaeng is majestic and full. The instrument is used primarily in court orchestras to reinforce the bass instruments.
Haegum
This two-stringed fiddle without a fingerboard is held on the left knee and played vertically with a bow. The tone quality is nasal and the sound is penetrating. The instrument is always found in Korean court and folk music ensembles.
Taegum
The taegum is the largest and most representative transverse flute of Korea. It has a blowing hole, a hole covered with a thin membrane, six finger holes and five non-finger holes at the lower end, for a total of 13. The vibration of the membrane lends a beautiful, expressive tonal quality to the music. The taegum is an indispensible instrument in any Korean music ensemble.
Tangjok
The tangjok is the smallest transverse flute, similar to the piccolo of the west. The tone quality is pure and clear, particularly in the upper register. It is only played with the taegum.
P'iri
The p'iri, a cylindrical oboe, has a long, wide double reed and eight finger holes, including the back thumb hole. It is the leading instrument and always takes the main melody in Korean court music or folk ensembles. Its sound is loud and has a distinctive tone quality and timbre.
T'aep'yongso
The t'aep'yongso, literally "great peace flute," is a conical wooden oboe with eight finger holes, a metal mouthpiece, and a cup-shaped metal bell. It produces a loud and piercing sound and is used for farmers' band music, traditional military band music and some folk music.
Nagak
This conch shell trumpet, producing only one deep note, is used exclusively as a drone in a military processional band in alternation with the nabal, a long trumpet.
Nabal
The nabal is the only Korean metal trumpet. Without finger holes, it is used to produce only one sustained tone. It is now played exclusively in military processional bands to sound a one-note drone in alternation with the conch shell trumpet.
Tanso
The tanso is a small, notched, vertical bamboo flute with five fingerholes, one on the back. The tone quality is exceedingly pure and delicate, making it a favorite solo instrument.
Pak
The pak is a clapper shaped like a folded fan. It consists of six pieces of wood loosely held together at the upper end by a cord made of deer skin. The pieces of wood are thicker at the loose ends. The pak is clapped once to start a piece of music and three times rapidly to mark the end of a piece. It is used by court and ritual orchestras.
P'yonjong
The p'yonjong is a set of 16 chromatically tuned bronze bell chimes hung in an elaborately decorated frame. The bells are the same size and shape but the thickness of their walls are different, giving each a different pitch. The player sits behind the instrument on the ground and uses a mallet to strike the bells.
P'yon-gyong
The p'yon-gyong is a set of 16 L-shaped slabs of jade stone. The counterpart of the bell chimes, it has played an essential role in court ceremonies since the 12th century. The stone slabs are the same size and shape but vary in thickness so that each has a different pitch. The thickest produces the highest pitch while the thinnest one, the lowest.
Kkwaenggwari
The kkwaenggwari, the smallest gong, is struck with a wooden mallet to produce a sharp, attention-commanding sound. It is used for farmers' band music (nong-ak) and shaman music. In farmers' band music, it is played by the leader to signal rhythmic patterns for the other musicians.
Changgo
The changgo, or hourglass drum, is the most frequently used accompaniment in almost all forms of Korean music. The thick skin of the left side is struck with the palm and produces a soft, low sound, and the thin skin of the right side is struck with a bamboo stick to produce a hard, crisp sound. The pitch of the right side can be made higher or lower by tightening or loosening the tension of the drum head. This is done by moving the central belts encircling the V-shaped laces to the right or to the left.
Chwago
The chwago is a medium-size barrel drum hung from a frame. Its sound reinforces the hourglass drum. It is used mainly in court music to accompany wind ensembles or full orchestras.
Classical Western Music in Contemporary Korea
 The KBS Symphony Orchestra performing at the Sejong Cultural Center in Seoul |
Among the many theories about the introduction of Western music to Korea, the most commonly accepted is that it was through the hymns taught by foreign missionaries. Accordingly, 1885, the year American missionaries Horace G. Underwood and Henry G. Appenzeller arrived in Chemulp'o Port (today's Inch'on), may be regarded as the beginning of Western music in Korea.
From that time, music from the West began to permeate Korea's musical culture. It flourished so well that around the turn of the century, conflicts between pro-Western and pro-Korean musical viewpoints began to arise. Many asked why Koreans should indulge in Western music.
There was not much development nor refinement during the Japanese colonial rule, but some pioneer musicians did sow the seeds for future growth.
While traditional Korean folk songs formed the musical mainstream from the 1920s to the 1945 liberation, Western-style songs like "Pongsonhwa," composed by Hong Nan-p'a in 1919, enjoyed increasing popularity. Some of the most popular composers during that time were Ch'ae Tong-son, Hyon Che-myong, Yi Hung-yol, Kim Se-hyong, Kim Tong-jin, Cho Tu-nam, and Kim Song-t'ae. Many of their songs remain popular.
In 1948 Chong Hoe-gap presented a composition of his own entitled String Quartet No. 1 at a concert commemorating the graduation of the first class of the Music College of Seoul National University. Two years later an opera composed by Hyon Che-myong called Ch'unhyangjon, based on a traditional love story by the same name, opened and was enthusiastically received. These two events gave rise to expectations of active production of new works in composition; however, the Korean War (1950 - 53) brought a brutal halt to any new development.
Korea's music world was introduced to modern compositional techniques in 1955 when the country began to recover from the devastation wrought by the war. Around that time, composer Na Un-yong began to present to the public works based on a 12 tonesystem and soon other musicians began to join the mainstream of world music. In 1958 the members of the Composition Department of the Music College of Seoul National University formed a composers club that played an important role in the creation of new music in Korea. Composers like Yun Yi-sang residing in West Germany, and the late Ahn Ik-t'ae, composer of the national anthem of Korea, won worldwide fame for their distinctive musical talents in composition.
More and more composers turned to chamber music during the 1970s, increasingly employing the techniques of their Western contemporaries. Leading musicians at this time included Chong Hoe-gap, Yi Song-jae, Kang Sok-heui, Paek Pyong-dong, Kim Yong-jin, Pak Chae-yol, Na In-yong and Yi Yong-ja. A group of young composers centered around Kang Sok-hui won prizes in competitions sponsored by the World Association of Modern Music, demonstrating the level to which composition in Korea had risen.
Korea's first symphony orchestra was established in September 1945 under the name of the Korea Philharmonic Orchestra Society. The Seoul Philharmonic Orchestra was inaugurated in 1957 and the KBS (Korean Broadcasting System) Symphony Orchestra was formed in 1956. There has been a rapid growth of orchestras in the provincial cities as well in recent years: the symphony orchestras of Pusan, Taegu, Inch'on, Kwangju and Suwon hold regular concerts, and the Korean Symphony, a privately operated orchestra, held its inaugural concert in 1985.
The quality of music performed in concerts, however, has been weak, given the large number of orchestras, ensembles and other groups. This is due in part to the interruption of musicians' instrumental training caused by the Korean War. In addition, only since the mid-1960s have there been quality performances by musicians who have returned home following musical training abroad.
 A performance of Verdi's opera Aida |
The first opera performed here was Verdi's La Traviata in January 1948. Since that time, many opera groups have emerged and disappeared in the past 40 years. The National Opera Group, the Kim Cha-kyong Opera Group and the Seoul Opera Group led by Kim Pong-im are the most active. The National Opera Group opened in 1965 with a performance of Puccini's La Boheme. The Kim Cha-kyong Opera Group opened in 1968 with La Traviata.
Several Korean operas have been performed, including Ch'unhyangjon by Hyon Che-myong, Prince Hodong by Chang Il-nam, Shimch'ongjon by Kim Tong-jin, Non-gae by Hong Yon-t'aek and Ch'obun by Pak Chae-yol, as well as many foreign operas including La Traviata, Tosca, Madam butterfly, Aida, Manon and Le Nozze di Figaro. Church choirs have long led chorus activities. The first professional chorus came into being in 1973 with the formation of the National Chorus, followed by the Seoul City Chorus in 1978 and the Daewoo Chorus, a privately operated chorus, in 1983. Na Yong-su, one of the nation's foremost chorus conductors, contributed greatly to raising the level of choral music.
An increasing number of Korean musicians are performing in concerts and other fields abroad. Many have won highest acclaim from foreign critics and audiences. A number have taken top awards in international competitions, and some have assumed prestigious posts as conductors or in other functions.
 A performance of the Chong Trio (Chong Myong-hwa, Chong Kyong-hwa and Chong Myong-hun) |
Among them are Chong Kyong-hwa (Chung Kyung-hwa), one of the world's foremost violinists; violinist Kang Tong-sok, a prize winner at the Elizabeth Concours; and violinist Kim Yong-uk, who is based in New York. Pianists performing abroad include Han Tong-il, who resides in the United States, Paek Kon-u, who resides in Paris, and So Hye-gyong and So Chu-hui. Baritone Ch'oe Hyon-su won top honors in the voice section of the Ninth International Tchaikovsky Musical Competition in July 1990 in Moscow. He also received the Tchaikovsky Award, a prize for the best interpreter of Tchaikovsky's music. Conductors working abroad include Chong Myong-hun who was appointed as the music director and principal conductor of the French National Bastille Opera.
The Yewon School and the Seoul Arts High School are two well-established schools that provide training in the arts for talented young people. Numerous graduates from these schools have gone on to study at music conservatories of international fame, including the highly regarded Juilliard School of Music. The students of these schools are expected to contribute much to the development of music in Korea.
