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Reflections on Propaganda
An essay on Propaganda
by An Dieu Pham
My definition of propaganda written in September, at the beginning of the Seminar in Propaganda course:
"Propaganda is some form of mass brainwashing/persuading done in a way that isn't obvious to those under the influence of propaganda."
In this definition, I equated propaganda with brainwashing. After having read Jacques Ellul’s book Propaganda: the formation of men’s attitudes, I think my perception of propaganda was too narrow. According to Ellul, brainwashing would only be one of various methods or manifestations of propaganda. Brainwashing requires that those subjected to it be isolated from their former social milieu, from news and information, be placed in a controlled environment such as a prison or camp, be required to repeat slogans, and sometimes also be deprived from food and sleep (Ellul, p.311). What results is an “involuntary penetration and a certain intellectual weakening, added to the impossibility of leading a private intellectual life” (Ellul, p.312). Brainwashing also includes a required active participation in group discussions, with the goal to create ambiguity and guilt in the mind of the prisoner/participant about his ideas and convictions. Then the group leader explains how this guilt can be alleviated, how redemption is possible, if one adheres to the new way, the new ideology whatever that may be. Eventually the individual internalizes the value of this new ideology and the brainwash is complete. But this technique, Ellul writes, wears off once the individual subject to the brainwash is released from the controlled environment.
Propaganda, however, refers to roughly a process of creating consensus and mobilizing people towards a desired action, by employing a variety of techniques, not just brainwashing. Ellul quotes different definitions of propaganda from other authors on the subject but does not offer one of his own, considering it “more useful to proceed with the analysis of the characteristics of propaganda as an existing sociological phenomenon” (Ellul, p.xii).
To prepare the terrain, there is first of all pre-propaganda, which is to “prepare man for a particular action, to make him sensitive to some influence” (Ellul, 31). This conditioning of behaviours is done through psychological manipulations to create stereotypes and myths. Then once the framework is in place, propaganda can be achieved by simplifying, intensifying and repeating these pre-conceived myths to obtain the desired action. When referring to myths, these do not necessarily have to be lies. Propaganda doesn’t concern itself with truths or lies, but only with how they can be distorted to obtain an action. Fact-based information can be transformed into myths and used for any purpose, as is the case in war propaganda.
Ellul also makes the distinction between vertical and horizontal propaganda. The vertical type is one where there is a leader preaching, imposing his ideology unto the mass. The regime of Nazi Germany is an example of that. Horizontal propaganda is more subtle, with no dictator in sight. It is achieved through a group environment, using group dynamics and peer pressure to indoctrinate. What sociology calls the adherence to society or what psychology calls the internalization of social norms, is in fact the result of horizontal propaganda. It is efficient when seeking to integrate people with as little agitation as possible.
Contrary to my original definition, (before I knew any better, before my Enlightenment, prior to reading the Book of Truth ), propaganda is not just a process that is administered onto a passive mass. But rather, it addresses itself at “one and the same time to the individual and the masses” (Ellul, p. 6). Ellul writes that these two elements cannot be separated; While the individual is never considered as such, but is reduced to an average in terms of his motivations, feelings, and beliefs in common with others in the mass, propaganda in order to be effective, needs to make each individual in the mass feel as if he is being addressed personally, that he is a participant and not just mere observer. The individual incorporated in a mass exhibits characteristics such as being irrational, more impulsive, more emotional. Amid the euphoria of the mass, the individual becomes an easy target for propaganda.
Linguist/political activist Noam Chomsky contends that the mass participation of sports fans along with their automatic rooting activity is an exercise preparing people to become willing recipient of propaganda. “The main thing is…to reduce their capacity to think. Sports is an example of the indoctrination system. It offers people something to pay attention that’s of no importance. It’s a way of building up irrational attitudes of submission to authority, and group cohesion behind the leadership element, it’s training in irrational jingoism.”
According to Ellul, to be efficient, propaganda must be total and organized. Hence one poster or ad cannot be considered propaganda. But when examining the advertising the industry as a whole, there is obviously propaganda; What is being propagandized is not to buy a specific product, but rather that people should adhere to certain values such as ‘technological progress is good’, ‘youth and beauty determine a person’s worth’, etc… By reinforcing these values consistently as a general theme and guideline for all ads, this is in fact propaganda. Consumers are submerged in these values no matter where they look.
To Ellul, propaganda is a necessity in our society because it allows people to adjust and submit themselves to an increasing mechanization and tech-dominated world without feeling too oppressed (Ellul, p.121). But he also warns that although propaganda has often been used to promulgate what is seemingly good, such as propagandizing democracy, it is nevertheless a dangerous tool. Propaganda threatens the very existence of democracy, and Ellul advises that we don’t let our guards down and bring about our own destruction.
In the end, 14 weeks after our first class in Propaganda, I think most students, myself including, will be leaving this Seminar with an increased awareness of the world we live in. There's a certain urgency to say something, do something, change something. We've been left to wonder if there is any way to escape propaganda.
Perhaps there is one salvation in all this. Education is often perceived as manifestation of propaganda but it is also a remedy against it. And like any system, propaganda is not infaillible.
If we look at advertising as commercial propaganda for example, we can see that the existence of too many propaganda messages can cancel themselves out. Today not many ads are effective in terms of creating a need, influencing the buyer’s behaviour and creating brand loyalty. Overtime, with so many propaganda messages injected our psyche, we have become immune to them, just as the effect of a vaccine. The accumulation of ineffective or weak propagandas and our awareness of such strengthen our resistance to new propagandas. We may follow certain consumer trend in buying certain types of products at one time, but the effect of most ads are not lasting, hence these propagandas are unsuccessful. The overabundance of messages and information reduces their own power.
Because one of propaganda’s main technique is manipulating people’s psychology by evoking feelings and conditioned reflexes through symbols and slogans, it is inevitable that at one point, people’s senses will be saturated with stimuli and thus propaganda could become ineffective. Take for example the situation in Communist Vietnam. The colourful propaganda posters that shout “Forever Remember the Contribution of Uncle Ho!” or “The Springtime of National Reunification!” now have to compete with ads from Coca-Cola and Kodak. The effects on the public, if there are any, are probably very weak when people’s senses are aroused by too many propagandas.
When looking at the internet for example, it seems to be the ideal tool for propaganda because it has cult-like characteristics; It creates hype quickly and easily, and through its structure (chat rooms, websites, message boards, etc.), allows the reinforcement of ideas, and makes the degree of influence exponential. On the net, truths are buried in the sheer overload of information, and both truths and lies co-exist and are not easily discernable. Nevertheless, in practice, the Internet is too vast, too diluted by numerous different messages that propaganda is ineffective. All it can do is preach to the converted, but barely efficient in converting. It’s almost as if by having too many propagandas, they negate each other. Furthermore, though propaganda usually thrives in environments of lies and distorted truths, the very existence of lies on the net brings about skepticism and consequently the non-success of propaganda. The absence of truths actually takes away a reference point for people to be able to believe in myths.
The clash of propagandas has a different effect, however, to our present-day situation of political propaganda. Election campaigns produce various propagandas and these messages succeed in influencing people’s voting. According to Ellul, when there are opposing propagandas, the individual is confused and reacts in one of two ways: joins one political party so he does not have to remain torn between the clash of propagandas, or resigns from making any decision. We hear of more and more people becoming apathetic to politics. Ellul writes that apathy does not mean that propaganda has failed (Ellul, p.181). In a way it is a victory for propaganda, because by not exercising their right to vote, people are in fact withdrawing their participation in democracy. In this case, the existence of many propagandas can’t be used against themselves.
Despite the few instances where an element of propaganda betrays its whole, propaganda still remains a strong force that affects people’s lives. Ellul writes that we in fact want propaganda because it gives us a simplified view of the world that makes sense and thus reduces any anxiety we may have about our lives (Ellul,p.184).
This is not to say that we should then live in oblivion. Sometimes, we’re like a fish in the water, in that we are so comfortable in our environment that we are not aware of it. But it would be good to once in while see if we’re not drowning in it.
So while education is a manifestation of propaganda, we should use it as a weapon against itself by making ourselves more conscious of who is pulling the strings. And of course never assume that we know enough and cannot be a victim of propaganda.
As philosopher Socrates puts it: “The true wisdom consists in knowing that we know nothing.”
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Bibliography:
Propaganda: The Formation of Men’s Attitudes, by Jacques Ellul, Vintage Books, 1965.
Manufacturing Consent, Noam Chomsky and the Media, by Mark Ashbar, Peter Wintonick.
Kosovo: How myths and truths started a war, by Julie A. Mertus, 1999.
The Message Medium, by Seth Mydans (New York Times), The Gazette, Nov. 26., 2000.
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