READING SKILLS

What is scanning?

Scanning is very high-speed reading. When you scan, you have a question in mind. You do not read every word, only the words that answer your question. Practice in scanning will help you learn to skip over unimportant words so that you can read faster.

For example:

Ø     Look at the list of art exhibits below:

Will you be able to see the exhibition of Leonardo da Vinci’s drawings in March?

Crèche                                                                  Leonardo da Vinci: The anatomy of man

Through January 10                                               drawings from the collection of her majesty

                                                                                Queen Elizabeth 2

                                                                               Through February 21

The grand tour: European and American        Master European paintings from the

Views of Italy                                                        national gallery of Ireland: Mantega to

Through January 17                                                        Goya

                                                                               January 13-march 28

Joel Sternfeld: photographs of the roman        Building a Collection: the department of

Campagagna:                                                       contemporary art, part 1

Through January 17                                               January 28- July 3

Late 20^th century prints                                      photography: close-up/ still life

Through January 31                                               February 10- May 23

On Kawara: date paintings in 89 cities            

Through February 7                                   

            MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS * 465 HUNTİNGTON AVENUE * BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS 02115

            Did you read the whole list of exhibitions to find out? No. you knew what to look for. You scan the list to find information that you needed.

SCANNİNG İN EVERYDAY LİFE

            Scanning is a skill that you often use in daily life. For example you might scan the list of names in a telephone directory in order to find a phone number.

SCANNİNG TABLES

·        in this exercises you will scan the table of ATOMİC WEİGHTS. Read each question. Than scan the table on the right to locate the information.

1)      What are the four kinds of information given in this table

2)      What is the symbol of iron

3)      What is the atomic number for tin

4)      Which has a higher atomic weight, zinc or lead

5)      What is the atomic weight of hydrogen

6)      Which has a higher atomic number, phosphorous or chlorin

7)      What is the symbol for silicon

8)      Which has a higher atomic weight, gold or platinum

9)      Which element has the highest atomic weight,

10)  Find an element which was probably named for a scientist.

ATOMİC WEİGHTS

SCANNİNG MAGAZİNE ARTİCLES

·        you will be visiting Boston with some friends in the autumn. They would like to spend a day in the country. You see this article about picking apples and decide you want to know about it. Scan the article for the answers to the questions below.

1)      Where is the Natural History Museum situated?

2)      What is the official name of the Houses of Parliament?

3)      What can you hire on the serpentine?

THINGS TO SEE IN LONDON

Hide Park:

 London’s largest and most fashionable park. It was once a royal hunting forest. Restaurants and bars at each end of the lake. Swim or hire a boat on the Serpentine.

Downing street:

Number 10 downing street has been the home of the British prime minister since 1735.

Houses of the parliament:

Its official name is the palace of Westminster. Most of the building was built in 1840 after a fire in 1834 destroyed the old palace. At the north end of the building by Westminster Bridge is the famous clock tower, Big Ben. In fact Big Ben is really the name of the bell in the tower not the clock.

The tower of London:

London’s oldest building. Since it was built by the William the conqueror in the 11^th century, this castle has been a royal place, a prison, a place of execution, a zoo, the Royal Mint and an observation. Today it is a museum and houses the Crown Jewels Gift shop.

Open Monday-Saturday.

9.30-5.45

Sundays 2-5.45

The natural history museum:

Situated in Kensington. One of London’s greatest museums. A huge collection of animals and plants, including a quarter of a million butterflies, a blue whale and the famous dinosaur skeletons. Cafeteria, gift shop and book shop.

Open daily 10-5.45

Madame Tussauds Marylebone road:

This famous waxworks has models of famous people from pop stars to prime ministers. Displays of bottles and Chambers of horrors. Gift shop.

Open everyday 10-5.30, except Christmas day.

The royal observatory, Greenwich:

10 miles outside London on a hill above the river Thames. The observatory contains telescopes and displays about astronomy, including Halley’s comet and black holes. The international meridian line runs through the observatory. Video theatre and souvenir shop. Picnic in Greenwich park. Take a river boat to Greenwich from Westminster bridge.

Open 10.30 am to 5.30 pm.

Closed 25-28 december.     

SCANNİNG ENCYCLOPEDİA ENTRİES

You are writing a report about Marie curie for your history class. You look in the encyclopedia for some basic information. Scan the encyclopedia entry below to find the answers to the questions below.

1)      when was marie born?

2)      What is her middle name?

3)      Where was she born?

4)      Where was she educated?

5)      What was her husband’s name?

6)      What was her specialty in scientific work?

7)      How many years did the curies work on their radium study?

8)      When did they received the nobel prize?

9)      Which American helped her with her work?

10)  What is the name of her most famous book?

CURIE: the name of a distinguished French family whose most prominent members have been scientists.

            Marie Skolodowska curie (1867-1934) was born in Warsaw, Poland, nov. 7,1867. she received her early education and scientific training from her father and for s3everal years taught in a Warsaw high school. In 1891 she moved to paris, where she studied physics at the Sorbonne, receiving her degree in 1893. two years later she married to French chemist Pierre Curie. After A.H  Becquerel’s investigation of the radioactive properties of uranium, she commenced her researches in radioactivity, and in 1898 discovery of polonium and radium in pitchblende was announced, her husband havig joint in the research. It took them four more years of work toı isolate radium in its pure form; doing this time they made numerous discoveries regarding the properties ogf the new element. While they were conducting their researches, trhe curies suffered from financial hardship, and marie curie was obliged to teach physics in school for girls. In 1903 the curies were awarded, with henri becquerel, the nobel prize for physics. The process for obtaining radium they freely gave to the world without any thought to their own gain.

            Marie curie became chief of the laboratory in her husband’s departmenr at the Sorbonne in 1903 and upon his death in 1907 succeeded him there as a professor of physics. She was awarded a second nobel prize for chemistry, in 1911 for her work on radium and its compounds, and in 1914 she was placed in charge of the radioactivity laboratory of the new institute of radium in paris. Here she was later joined in her work by her daughter Irene, who married mmé. Curies assistant joliot. During world war 1 she organized radiological service for hospitals. In 1921 she visited the united states, and in 1929 president Herbert hoover presented her with a check for $ 50,000 which had been raised by subscription and which was intended for the purchase of a gram of radium for a laboratory in Warsaw that she had helped to establish. In addition to the classic traité de radioactivité   ( 1910 ), she published numerous papers on radium. Mmé. Curie died at saint-cellemoz, haute-savoie, july 4, 1934.  

Pierre Curie (1859-1906 ), French physicist, was born in Paris on may 15, 1859, and was educated at the Sorbonne. He became professor of general physics at the école de physique et de chimie in 1895 and the professor of general physics at the Sorbonne in 1904.  much of his early work was concerned with the subject of magnetism in crystals. With his brother  paul jean curie he investigated piezoelectricity in crystals in 1880. his discovery of a relation for electrical susceptibility is known as “curie’s law” while “curie’s point” is that critical point of temperature at which ferromagnetism suddenly disappears. He was run over and killed by a dray, in paris, on apr. 1906.

PREVIEWİNG AND PREDICTING

What is previewing? What is predicting?

             There are two skills that are essential for a good reader: Previewing and predicting. When you gather information about a book by examining it’s cover, you are previewing. The aim of previewing is to help you to predict or make some “educated guesses” about what is in the book. You should develop the habit of applying these skills whenever you read.

            Previewing and predicting before you read can make a big difference. You can get some ideas about what you will read. That way you will begin to process the information far more quickly. You will also be able to follow the writers ideas better. Though it takes a few minutes to preview and predict, those few minutes are well invested. You will find that later you save reading time and comprehension.

·        Preview the following story and answer the following questions. Time limit: 30 seconds.

1)      when did he go to recording studio called Sun records?

2)      When did he join the American army?

3)      When did he die?

THE KING OF ROCK AND ROLL

Elvis Presley came from a very poor family. He has won on 8 January 1935 in Mississippi.

Elvis loved music. He went to church every Sunday and song in the choir. When he was 13, his mother bought him a guitar. (Elvis wanted a bicycle, but it was too expensive.) In the same year Elvis and his family left Mississippi. They moved to Memphis, Tennessee.

One day in 1954 he went to a recording studio called Sun records. He wanted to make a record for his mother’s birthday. The secretary at the studio, Marion Keisker, heard Elvis and she told her boss, Sam Philips.

Elvis was Sam Philips’ dream- “a white boy with a black voice.”

Philips became Elvis’ manager and Elvis made his first single- that is all right, mama. When discjokeys played it on their radio stations, American teenagers went wild. Many American parents did not like Elvis. He was too sexy.

In 1955, Elvis appeared on TV in new York. The following year he went to Hollywood and made his first film, love me tender love sweet. In the next two years he had many hit records- blue suede shoes, heart break hotel, all shook up, jailhouse rock, teddy bear.

In 1958, Elvis joined the American army and went to Germany. When he returned to the U.S. in the early 60’s, pop was not the same. British groups like the Beatles and rolling Stones were the new stars.

Elvis was a millionaire but he was a very lonely man. In his last years he became fat and depressed. He died of a heart attack on 16 august 1977 in his mansion at grace land, Memphis.

But for his millions of funds, Elvis is still the king. Shane Lyons has got more than 250 albums by Elvis and videos of all his films. “Man, he was great” says Shane. “Elvis could really sing. Not like these kids today with all their electronic machines. He was the king, man, the king of rock and roll.”

VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE FOR EFFECTIVE READING

Guessing unknown vocabulary:

            What do you usually do when you come to a word you don’t know in your reading? Do you:

·        Look it up in a dictionary?

·        Ask your teacher?

·        Ask an other student or a friend?

·        Try to guess what it means?

If you choose the first three selection then you are not reading effectively and efficiently as you could be. In fact the best strategy for dealing with an unknown word is to try to guess what it means. This strategy;

·        is fast because you do not interrupt your reading.

·        Helps your comprehension because you stay focused on the general sense of what you are reading.

·        Helps build vocabulary because you are more likely to remember the words.

·        Allows you to enjoy your reading more because you do not have to stop often.

Guessing meaning from context in sentences:

            When you try to guess the meaning of an unknown word, you use the text surrounding the word-the context. One sentence may be enough to give you the meaning, or you may need to use a longer passage.

            Example: do you what “misogynist” means? If not try to make a guess:

A misogynist is ……………………………………………………………………..

Now reading the sentences. Try to guess what misogynist means;

a)      she realized that her boss was a misogynist, soon after she started working for him.

b)      It is difficult for a woman to work for a misogynist. She is never sure of the reasons for his criticism.

c)      She knew that no woman would ever get a top level job in a company owned by a misogynist.

We know from sentence “      a” that a misogynist is a man. From sentence “b” we learn that a misogynist criticizes women’s work. Than from “c” we understand that a misogynist has negative feelings about women.

      These exercises will help you develop the skill of guessing vocabulary in context.

  If you:

·        do not use a dictionary

·        do not talk about the vocabulary with other students until you have tried to make a guess on your own and everyone else has finished.

·        Do not translate the unknown words in to your own language. Instead you should try to describe them or give words with similar meanings in English.

 Using grammar to guess word meaning:

             Another way context can help you guess meaning is by giving you information about grammar. When you find a word you do not know look at the grammatical structure of the sentence it will tell you about the function of the word--- as a noun, verb, pronoun, adjective, adverb, etc…  Then you have a much narrower range of choices for guessing the meaning.

            In each of the following sentences, there is one word that you probably do not know. Look at the grammatical structure of the sentence and decide whether the word is a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. Then guess then meaning.

Example:  the news that john was resigning from his job surprised us all. We simply couldn’t fathom  why he wanted to leave now that the company was finally doing so well.

* what is the grammatical function of “fathom” in this sentence?

If you wrote “verb” you were correct. Only a verb makes sense here after “couldn’t”.

* now can you guess what fathom means?

If you answered “understand” or something similar you were correct.

Recognizing words that connect ideas:

            Do you ever find that you are understanding words but not understanding the writer’s ideas? Sometimes this happens when you do not pay attention to the words which connect the ideas. These words are often short but important. Three useful kinds of words to notice are pronouns synonyms and summary words.

 Pronouns:

            Writers use pronouns because repeating the same word or name many times is boring and clumsy pronouns can be singular or plural. This means they can replace a single name / idea or a group of names /ideas. Here is a list of some commonly used pronouns:

He, she, it, we, you, they,                                                   

Me, him, her, us, them,

My, your, her, his, our, their.

Myself, yourself, herself,

This these, those

Ø     In this paragraph the pronouns are underlined. Write the referent for each pronoun.

The united states, about 10 million computers are thrown away every year! Because most unwanted computers are sent to a dump,  they  (1) have caused a problem the computer industry and the government are working on ways to solve it (2). They  (3) have concluded that there must be changes in the way computers are built. They  (4) must be made in ways that will allow their parts to be recycled. These parts include the electronic parts, the glass screen of the monitor, and parts of the printer.

Write the referent for:

1)      they

2)      it

3)      they

4)      they

synonyms:

            writers make their writing interesting and enjoyable to read by using a variety of words. They may use a few different words to name the same thing. It is important to remember that even though two different words are used, they could name the same thing.

Example: an  orange can be delicious snack. This citrus fruit is also very healthy for you because it is a good source of vitamin C.

* both orange and citrus fruit name the same thing.

    The order of the synonyms

Sometimes a writer will use several synonyms to refer to the same thing. these synonyms usually follow a pattern of specific to general.

Example: in the movie, Jurassic Park, viewers can see tyrannosaurus rex, velociraptors, a dead triceratops and a brachiasaurus. Scientists in the film found away to bring these long-dead dinosaurs to live. The creatures  are shown with great realism. It is easy to understand why some movie-goers (especially children) were very frightened by the movie.

What does dinosaurs  refer to?

What does creatures refer to?

These synonyms refer to the same thing. The synonyms were used in order, from specific to general:

Most specific: tyrannosaurus rex, velociraptor, triceratops, brachiosaurus.

More general: dinosaurs

Most general: creatures

Summary words:

            A summary word(or phrase) names a general idea that has many examples or parts for ezample in the paragraph below, what are the referents for the summary word, process?

            One morning Ayako decided to make some egg salad. First she boiled the water than she added a drop of vinegar and six eggs. She boilede them for ten minutes after that  she placed the eggs in some cold water for half an hour to cool them. Than she peeled the eggs and chopped them. Finally she added some mayonnaise and chopped celery and the salad was ready. The whole process had taken about an hour.

Process refers to each step Ayako took in making egg salad. 

TOPICS

What is a topic:

 Whenyou read for the meaning, you should begin by looking for the topic. This helps you connect what you read to what you already know. In order to find the topic ask yourself:

“what is this about? What’s the general idea?”

example: in the group of words below, one of the words is the topic for all the other words.

Circle the topic:

Elephants                    zebras                   African animals              lions            tigers

 The topic is African animals. All of the other words are example of this topic.

Stating the topic:

In this exercise the topic is not included in each group of words. Write the topic above the words.

1)      Topic:

Frame       strings         hammers     keys      cover      pins      pedals      legs front

2)      Topic:

Dulcimer       zither       guitar          banjo          ukulele

3) Topic:  

Modem            monitor          keyboard            disk drive          floppy

TOPICS OF PARAGRAPHS

What is a paragraph?

Example a:

            In the Trobriand Islands, people do not celebrate birthdays. When a boy is about 14 or 15, he moves out of his parents’ house. Each canoe takes about 18 months to make. Boys and girls may leave together for periods of days, weeks, or months. Most islanders have no idea when they were born or how old they are. That way, they have a chance to find out if they are the right people for each other. When it is finally finished, it is named and special ceremonies are held to give it magic powers. This is also about the age that he begins to work on his own garden.

-Is this a paragraph?

Example b:

            On the Trobliand Islands, the yam is both an important food plant and an important part of the culture. Every village has a “yam house” with a giant four-foot yam hanging from the ceiling. It represents wealth and well-being for the village, life and strength for the people. Villagers take great pride in their gardens, especially their yam plants. The yam harvest is one of the high points of the year and also the focus for many traditions. For example, the harvest is always carried out by women. When they are bringing the yams in from the garden all together, no man is supposed to meet them. Any man they meet will be chased, attacked, and treated as a fool.

-Is this a paragraph?

-What is the difference between Example a and Example b?

A paragraph is group of sentences that are all about the same thing. That is, they all have the same topic. Example a is not a paragraph because the sentences are about several aspects pf the life in the Trobriand Islands. Together, the sentences make no sense.

Example b is a paragraph because all the sentences are about the same aspect of life (yams) in the Trobriand Islands.

Recognizing the topic of a paragraph

            When you read a paragraph you should always ask yourself, “What is this about?” that question will lead you to the topic of the paragraph.

Example a:

-What is this paragraph about?

            People have always been interested in bees. This interest may have begun with the honey bees make. In fact, archaeologists have found evidence that people have been eating honey for many thousands of years. In the more recent past, people were interested in the way bees made honey. They admired the way bees seemed to work so hard. Some languages even developed expressions about people working like bees. In English, for example, we talk about a “busy bee.” Now scientists have a new reason to be interested in bees. They have discovered that bees are able to communicate with each other. Research has revealed some surprising facts about this, but there are still many mysteries.

-Make a check after the best topic. Write “too specific” or “too general” after the other topics.

a.       Expressions about bees in the English language

b.      The story of bees

c.       People’s interest in bees

Explanation: The best topic is c, people’s interest in bees. It tells best what the paragraph is about. Choice a, expressions about bees in the English language is too specific. This idea is only a part of the paragraph. Choice b, the story of bees is too general. It includes many possible ideas that are not in the paragraph.

Exercise

-Read each paragraph. Decide which topic is the best. Make a check after that topic. Write “too specific” or “too general” after the topics.

            Elephant

1.                        Elephants are the largest land animals in the world. Whales are the largest sea animals. These two huge animals may, in fact, be related. Biologists now believe that the ancestors of elephants once lived in the sea. There is plenty of evidence to support this idea. For example, the shape of an elephant’s head is similar to a whale’s. Also 300 miles from shore. Like the whale, the elephant, too, uses sounds to show anger or for other kinds of communication. Finally, in certain ways, female elephants behave much like female whales. When an elephant or a whale baby is born, a female friend stays nearby to help the mother.

a.       How elephants are good swimmers

b.      The largest animals in the world

c.       How elephants and whales are alike

2.                        The elephant’s trunk is not just a large nose or upper lip. It’s an essential and unique feature that serves many purposes for this animal. For one, it is used to make many kinds of sounds. With its trunk, the elephant can communicate anger, fear, or happiness. The trunk is also used as if it were a kind of hand. At the end of the trunk are two muscles shaped like fingers. These muscles can pick up food and water and carry them to the elephant’s mouth. Elephants use their trunks to take dust baths, too, throwing the dust over their backs. If an elephant’s trunk is seriously injured, the elephant may die. Without its trunk, it has great difficulty getting enough to eat.

a.       The elephant’s trunk

b.      The elephant’s body

c.       The elephant’s dust baths

Stating the topic of a paragraph

Example:

            In most industrialized countries, family patterns have changed in recent years. Families used to be large, and most mothers stayed home to take care of the children. They were usually entirely responsible for all the housework, too. Fathers did not often see the children, except to play with them on the weekends. Now that families are smaller and many women are working, this has changed somewhat. Fathers often help with the housework. More importantly, they can be much more involved in the lives of their children. They may feed and dress their children and take them to school in the mornings.

- What is this paragraph about? Think carefully and then write the topic. It should not be too specific or too general.

Topic:

Explanation: A good topic for this paragraph would be “ how family patterns have changed.” If you wrote something similar, that is okay, too. For example, “recent changes in family patterns” is also a good answer. “Families” is too general. “How fathers care for their children” is too specific.

Finding the topic sentence

            Many paragraphs include a topic sentence that tells the topic of the paragraph. Read this paragraph and underline the topic.

            The first guitarist to become known worldwide was Andres Segovia, born in 1983 in Spain. Before the 20^th century, the guitar was not taken very seriously as a classical instrument. Most people thought that the guitar was suitable only for popular music or folk music. Few classical composers wrote music for the guitar, and it was never included in classical instrument, and he was a great musician. He used his genius to prove that the guitar could produce beautiful classical music.

-         The topic is stated in the topic sentence: the first guitarist to become known worldwide was Andres Segovia, born in 1983 in Spain. The other sentences in the paragraph explain and give details about the topic.

MAIN IDEAS

WHAT İS A MAIN IDEA:

            The main idea of a paragraph is the author’s idea about the topic. It is always a complete sentence that includes both the topic and the idea that the author wishes to express about the topic.

Example:

Topic: cats

Possible main ideas about cats:

• Cats usually very clean animals

• Cats have very expressive faces

• Cats are very adaptable animals

in fact for every topic there are many possible main ideas. The choice of a main idea depends on what author wants to say about the topic.

Finding the main idea in the topic sentence

 The topic sentence often states the author’s main idea about the topic.

Exercise:

1)                  read each paragraph and underline the topic sentence.

20^th century fashion

• before the first world war: fashions did not change very quickly. Men wore dark suits. They had short hair and moustaches were popular. Women wore long dresses and they had long hair. Under their dresses they wore stiff corsets. These gave women a very narrow waist, but they were very uncomfortable.

• In the roaring twenties: dresses and hair became much shorter. People saw women’s knees for the first time! Corsets disappeared. As trade figure with no waste or bust was fashionable. For men, trousers with very wide legs became fashionable. They were called oxford bags.

• In the 1930 and 40’s hair, dresses and coats became longer again. Men’s fashion did not change so much. Men wore a suit, a tieand usually a hat, too. Moustaches were less popular.

• The 1960’s saw the revolution in clothes. Every thing changed. This was the time of the mini skirt and long boats. For the first time in the twentieth century men had long hair- the famous Beatle hair cut.

• In the late 1960’s and the early 70’s the hippie “ flower power” style was in. woman wore loose maxi skirts. Men wore jeans and brightly colored shirts or t-shirts. Clothes were very colorful. Very long hair was fashionable for men and women, and beards became more common.

• The 80’s brought teenagers with punk hair styles in red blue purple and green and brightly colored make up.

Read the paragraphs and underline the main idea of it. 

Finding the main idea when it is not in the topic sentence

             Sometimes the topic sentence does not completely state the author’s idea about the topic.

 Example:

            In some industrialized countries, people are retiring from work at an early age. This is especially true in Europe, where many workers retire at age 55. In 1970, about half the men aged 55 continue to work. Now, only about 10-30% of that age group continues to work. The reason for this trend is economic. Some European governments wanted people to retire early so that their jobs could go younger people. But early retirement has created new economic problems. Governments are having trouble paying the pensions and held costs for all the additional retired people.

Topic: early retirement.

• underlin e the topic sentence. Then circle the letter in front of the best statement of the author’s main idea.

1. Early retirement starts at age 55.

2. In some industrialized countries, more people are retiring early.

3. The trend to early retirement is creating economic problems in Europe.

The best choice is c. choice a. is too specific. Choice b. does not include an important part of the main idea- the economic problems, which are the results of early retirement.

PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION

The importance of patterns:

            Since the beginning of history, people have looked for patterns in the world around them. They looked at mountains and saw the outlines of people’s faces. They looked at the stars and saw animals and gods.

            Scientists say that it is human nature to look for patterns in what you see. Your brain is always trying to make sense of the world around you. It tries to fit everything in some kind of recognizable shape or pattern that has meaning for you. A pattern makes it easier for your brain to understand and remember information.

            Finding the pattern helps you find the main idea. Thus, looking for patterns is a way to improve your comprehension while reading.

Four common patterns:

Listing of related ideas or examples:

            In this pattern writer’s main idea is stated in form of a generalization. This is followed by a list of supporting details.

Example:

            People have many different ideas about what makes a great vacation. Some people like to go for long walks in the forest where they won’t see anyone for days. Others  prefer to spend their holiday in an exciting city. There they can visit museums, theatres, and good restaurants. Still others enjoy the fresh air at the seashore. They can spend their days at the beach and listen to the ocean waves at night. a few people decide to stay at home and do some major house hold projects. They might spend their vacation painting a porch or washing all the windows in their apartment.

Sequence:

            In this pattern, the writer’s main idea includes a series—events or steps that follow one after another.

Example:

            Albert Einstein was born near the end of the 1800s in Ulm, Germany. He graduated from the university of Zurich in Switzerland at the age of 26. 14 years later he won the Nobel Prize for physics. For the next ten years he lived in Germany. Then, in  the early 1930s, he had to leave germany because of Hitler and the Nazi party. He moved to the US, where he lived until the time of his death at the age of 74. he lived a long and productive life.

Comparison/contrast

            In this pattern the writer’s main idea explains similarities and/or differences.

Example:

Visitors see some similarities between New York and San Francisco. Both cities, for example, are exciting cultural centers. They are equally attractive to people from many parts of the world. The cities are also alike because they both have many beautiful buildings, large, lovely parks, and grand bridges. On the other hand, the two cities have important differences. One difference is life style. New Yorkers are always in a hurry and are much less friendly than residents of San Francisco. The streets in the California City are very clean, unlike New York, where the streets are often dirty. Another major difference is safety: San Francisco has much less crime than New York.

Cause-Effect

            When the main idea is that one event or action causes another, authors use the cause-effect pattern.

Example:

            In 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker spilled millions of gallons of oil in Alaska’s Prince William Sound. Biologists who have studied the local wild life have noted the consequences of the spill. It has resulted in a great decline in the number of birds in the area. The spill also has caused many young harbor seals to suffer from brain damage and death. Killer whales also felt the impact of the spill. Since 1989, more than one third of the whale population has disappeared.

Listing:

            In a listing pattern, the writer’s main idea is a general statement that is followed by a list of supporting details. Some signal words for the listing pattern (many others are possible):

Sequence:

            The pattern is used for the organization of two kinds of material:

• Events ordered by time

Examples: history, biography

• Steps in a process

Examples: the steps in an experiment, directions for building something

The important idea is that things happen in a certain order. Some signal words for the sequence pattern:

            Other signal words for this pattern are dates, years, times of the day, seasons, and plain numbers.

Comparison-Contrast

            This is the pattern a writer uses to show how two things are similar and/or different. A comparison can include:

• Only similarities

• Similarities and differences

A contrast includes only the differences.

Some signal words for the comparison-contrast pattern:

Signals of difference

            Comparative forms of adjectives and adverbs are also used to signal difference (older, faster).

Signals of similarity:

 Cause-Effect

            This is the pattern, which is used to show how another causes one event or condition.

Identifying causes and effects:

            Causes and effects are part of our daily lives. Therefore, this pattern is found very often in history books, science texts, and novels. It is important to recognize the cause-effect pattern when you read. But it is not easy as the other patterns.

Multiple causes or effects:

            In many situations, there is not just a single cause and a single effect.

Example a: Sometimes a single cause can produce many effects. In the following paragraph, what is the cause?

What are the effects?

            In 1992 hurricane Iniki hit the Hawaiian island of Kauai. As a result, all telephone lines were out of order, the airport was closed, and thousands of homes were damaged. Hotels were washed away, and tourists’ holidays were ruined. Many Kauaians lost their jobs.

Example b: Sometimes a single effect is the result of several causes. In the following paragraph, what is the effect?

What are the causes?

            The frozen yogurt company closed its shop in the center of town. There really was no other choice. The poor economy meant fewer customers and higher prices for supplies. Bills for electricity and water seemed to go up every month. And then the landlord decided to double the rent.

SKIMMING

What is skimming?

Skimming is high-speed reading that can save you lots of time. You skim to get the general sense of a passage or a book. What would you do if you found yourself in these situations?

1)      you want to find out a little about the recent elections in France there is a long-newspaper article on the subject, but you don’t have time to read it all.

2)      You need some information about the theories of Sigmund Freud. You have found many books about Freud and now you need to know which will be most useful.

3)      You went to movie last night and you thought it was terrible. You notice a review of that movie in magazine today. You want to find out quickly if the reviewer agrees with you.

4)      You are reading a detective story and you are in a hurry to find out who the murderer is.

The answer is the same for all these situations: skim.

How do you skim:

 You should read only the words that will help you get the sense of the text. The following passage shows what parts you should read. These are the parts that usually give the author’s ideas or opinions.

            Read the first sentences or paragraph quite carefully. The beginning often contains general information about the rest of the text.

            If the text is long you might also read the second paragraph. Some times the first paragraph is only an introduction and the second paragraph contains the main idea………………………………………………………………………………………….

…………………………maybe read a few words…………………………………………. ………………………..in the middle ………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………Usually the topic sentence is at the beginning. But sometimes it may be at the end…………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….skip some paragraphs ………………………………………………………….

Not important ……………………

            You should usually read the last paragraph more carefully. The author often summarizes the main idea at the end. These are the general rules about skimming. And this is all the text you need to read when you skim!

Guide lines for effective skimming

• Always work as fast as you can. Don’t let details slow you down.

• Always keep in mind your reason for skimming.

• Be flexible when you are skimming. How much you skim in a passage depends on your purpose and on the passage.

Skimming book revise

            One way to find out about a book is to read a review of the book in a newspaper or magazine. Book reviewers usually tell something about the subject of the book and give their opinion. However, sometimes they do not state their opinion directly. They give some hints about it and let the reader infer it.

 Skimming news stories and magazine articles

Read the questions and then skim the news story for the answers. Work as fast as you can. (not more then two minutes for the skimming)

1)      What has happened to the three children from South Carver?

2)      What do the people in S.C. think about the situation?

3)      What do you think will happen to them?

THE BOSTON MAIL * SUNDAY, FEBRUARY             12,1995

ALL-NİGHT SEARCH FOR THREE MISSING CHİLDREN İN SOUTH CARVER

By Ellie Nashima

            SOUTH CARVER-several hundred people-police, firefighters and volunteers-searched a large area of swamp land and woods for three children who disappeared yesterday afternoon.

            The children, Seth and Cindy, Erland, 7 and 5, and their cousin Bruce McCaffy, 11, were last seen playing near the Erland’s home on Kinston street at about 3,5 pm and were reported missing about four hours later, said Carver SSgt. Dan Preston.

            The rescue efforts were hampered by winds of 22.30 m.p.h. and rain mixed with sled and snow. Temperatures last night hovered at around freezing and police expressed concern about the physical condition of the children.

            The searchers formed human chains to try to cover all of the 4-by5 mile area of the swamp. The search teams included state police, civil defense officials, Carver, Plymouth and Middleboro police officers and fire fighters, coasts guard officers and several hundred volunteers from as far away as Brockton and Attleboro. Up to seven bloodhounds and German shepherds were being used in the search, along with floodlights infrared lights from the coast guard helicopter.

            By late last night, there was no sign of the children or their belongings. Earlier, some footprints had been seen in the snow, which may have been made by the children, but the rain washed them away.

            Seth is 4’4” tall and weighs about 60 pounds. He has light brown hair and was wearing a navy jacket with red stipes.

            Cindy is 4’3” and weighs about 55 pounds. She has long brown hair and was wearing a purple jacket with a pink hood.

            Bruce is about 4’10” and weighs 85 pounds. He has short, brown hair and was wearing a red jacket and jeans.

            A fourth child was playing with them in the woods during the afternoon, according to the police. The boy reported that they had all fallen into the swamp. He had taken a different route in getting out and had become inadvertently separated the group.

            The boy, whom police said is about 11 years old, managed to find his way home. He arrived at about 5:00 pm. And reported the other children missing. Though he was wet and cold, he did not require medical attention.

            The boy also said that the Erland’s dog had been with the children when they fell into the swamp. The dog returned home alone at about 6 pm.

            Carver police chief Anthony Marino warned of the danger of searchers getting lost. Some parts of the swamp are “up to our shoulders”.  He said.

            The children may have headed east towards the beacon from the Plymouth municipal airport. Marino added: “we are looking at trouble here. That’s the worst part of the swamp they might have gone into”

            Richard Erland, the father of Seth and Cindy, was out with the searchers. Though all search efforts so far had been fruitless, he was still hopeful: “those children know the woods well and the two boys have some wilderness training from boy scouts.”  He believed that the children might have found some shelter from the bad weather.

            However, Paul Mahoney, a neighbor, said: “those kids could be pretty lost. It had be impossible stay on a path in the dark. I have gotten lost there myself.”

            Ken Thatcher, 22, of Plymouth, one of the volunteer searchers, said that children faced extreme conditions. “They are wet, and it is real cold out there. We have got to get to them soon.”

MAKING INFERENCES

            Sometimes the topic of a text may not be stated anywhere directly. You must look for clues and try to guess what the passage is about. This is called making inference

 Example: try to infer what “it” is in this passage.

            I found it in the middle of the sidewalk on my way home from school one spring morning. It was very tiny and it was hardly breathing when I picked up. I fed it raw meat and other treats for several weeks. Soon it became strong and started to hop around. One day someone left a window open. When I came back home from work, I discovered that it had disappeared.

            What is “it?”

            Underline the ideas in the paragraph which helped you to make this inference.

            The ability to make inferences is very important in reading. You often need to infer the topic of a main idea of a text, the author’s opinion, or other information.

 Making inferences from conversations

            Have you ever overheard part of a conversation and tried to imagine what it was about? If so, then you were making inferences.

Read the conversation and try to infer the answers to the questions below.

Examples:

A: excuse me. Do you live around here? Is this elm street?

B: no, this is maple ave.

A: maple ave?…… oh dear. I really don’t understand this! I’m looking for elm street and I thought this was it.

B: no, no. elm st. is not anywhere near here.

A: but was not that the high school back there?

B: no that was the town hall.

A: oh. Then I really am confused. Can you take a look here and show me where I am?

B: sure. Let’s see…. You are over here. See? This maple ave. and here is the high school. Now if you want to get to alm st. you better take the bus…..

1)      who are these people?

A visitor from out of town and someone who lives there

2)      what are they talking about?

Where they are- the visitor is lost and wants to know where she is on the map

3)      are they men or women? How can you tell?

It is impossible to tell.

Making inferences from short stories and plays

            The authors of novels, stories or plays often do not explain everything about characters or situations. The reader must infer the author’s meaning from the descriptions or the dialogues.

            Remember that you do not need to understand every word. If you find words you do not know, skip over them. Read quickly for the clues that will help you infer the answers to the questions.

SUMMARIZING

 What is summarizing?

            Summarizing is the retelling of the important parts of a passage in a much shorter way.

Why summarize?

·        to make sure you have understood something.

·        To explain the sense of passage to someone else.

·        To review texts for examinations

What does a good summary include?

·        a good summary includes the main ideas and the major supporting points.

·        A good summary does not include minor details, repeated details or the reader’s opinions

Summarizing sentences

             Summarize a sentence by taking out the unnecessary words. Use summary words to take the place of groups of words about the same topics. Keep only the words, which tell the main point of the sentence. Use as few words as possible.

Example:

            The tall cowboy put the saddle on his horse, untied him from the fence, waved goodbye and rode off into the sunset.

Summary:  the cowboy left.

Explanation:  you can leave out the word tall, since that is not an important fact. All of the things that the cowboy did ( out saddle on horse, untied him, waved goodbye, and rode off) can be summarized in one word: left.

Summarizing paragraphs:

 A paragraph summary should be as short as short as possible, but it must be a complete sentence.

            The summary of a paragraph is the main idea of the parag. Often (but not always), the main idea is found in the topic sentence.

 Step1: read the paragraph all the way through to be sure you understand it

Step2:  check to see if the paragraph contains a topic sentence.

• if the paragraph has a topic sentence, does it state the main idea of the paragraph? If so, you can use the topic sentence as the summary.

• If the topic sentence is not a good statement of the main idea, write a summary which states the main idea.

Step3: take out unnecessary words.

Example:

            There are some shops in king George avenue. On one side of the street there is a newsagents, a café and a library. The café is called the fat cat. On the opposite side of the street there is a petrol station, a supermarket and a hairdressers.

Topic sentence: there are some shops in king George avenue.

This can be used as a summary.    

Summarizing short passages

Step1:  read the passage all the way through.

Step2:  go back to the beginning and underline the topic sentence in each paragraph. If you cannot find topic sentence, write a short summary of the paragraph

Step3: put the sentences from the paragraphs together. Connect them with signal words or other connecting words. (Remember, signal words and connectors tie ideas together. ex: and, but, however, first, next, than, because.)

Exercises:

                        A LONG WAY TO TRAVEL FOR YOUR DINNER

            This is an arctic tern. It is not a very big bird. It is only about six inches (16 cms.) from its bright red beak to its tail. But soon this small bird will begin an incredible journey. It will fly from one end of the earth to the other- a journey of about 12.000 miles ( 18.000 kms.) 

            The tern spends the summer in the arctic, but it cannot spend the winter there. It is too cold and there is no food. If the tern stays in the arctic, it will die. But when it is winter in northern hemisphere, it is summer in the southern hemisphere. In autumn the arctic tern will leave the North Pole and fly south across the equator to the south pole. When spring comes again in the north tern hemisphere, the tern will return to the arctic.

            When the terns migrates, birds from Europe, America and Asia meet over the Atlantic ocean near Ireland. From here some of the birds will fly alone the west coast of Africa. Other terns will follow the east coast of South America. At the same time birds from Alaska will travel down the pacific coast of America to Antarctica.

            How do these small birds make this incredible journey? We don’t know the answer. Perhaps they use the sun, the moon and the stars as a compass. If it is cloudy or foggy, the birds will not migrate. In its life, an arctic tern travels as far as the moon and back. That is a long way to travel for your dinner. 

Write one sentence to summarize each paragraph

Paragraph1:

Paragraph2:

Paragraph3:

Summarizing longer passages:

            When you summarize an essay, text book chapter, or magazine article with many paragraphs follow these steps:

Step1: read the passage all the way through.

Step2: go back to the beginning and number the paragraphs in the text.

Step3: divide the text into parts. Notice which paragraphs focus on the same idea. Part one for example will be paragraph1 to paragraph x. part 2 will start with paragraph y, and so fourth. Step 4: for each part write a sentence which summarizes all the paragraphs in it.

Step5: tie all of those sentences together to form a summary, using signal words and other function words.