Sitting in the passenger side of my father's oil delivery truck as we bounced our way through the streets of Arnold's Cove, I shouted over the roar of the big diesel engine and explained my thoughts on the latest section of Will Anyone Search for Danny? that I had just finished reading minutes before. My father, who has been familiar with the book for years now, smiled and actually got excited when I mentioned the way that Ple was taunting Ranger Peters. "That's what I like about it too . . . I mean, back then wasn't like today -- if you shook your fist at someone, you were ready to fight or run. It's different now though." The conversation that followed was focused on the topic of how times have changed, of what people consider to be tough (both then and now), and gradually, it came back around to another point in the book that sparked yet another conversation. Although I was not aware of it at the time, I was participating in a kind of literature circle.

A literature circle is a special kind of reading group that has been increasing in popularity over the past decade. It is characterized, and differentiated from other kinds of classroom reading groups, by a great number of elements, the most prominent of which is the fact that it is focused entirely on the members of the group - the students. While many would argue that all classroom activities are focused on the students, and indeed, those people would be right in theory, out here in the real world, we find that most classroom activities are focused on the teacher - on his/her lecturing, leading and evaluating the students of his/her classroom. Literature circles, on the other hand, operate entirely on the focus and energy of the students that form them. Perhaps the best definition of literature circles that could be offered here comes from the seemingly most prominent expert on literature circles, Harvey N. Daniels:

Literature circles are small, temporary discussion groups who have chosen to read the same story, poem, article, or book. While reading each group-determined portion of the text (either in or outside of the class), each member prepares to take specific responsibilities in the upcoming discussion, and everyone comes to the group with the notes needed to help perform that job. The circles have regular meetings, with discussion roles rotating each session. When they finish a book, the circle members plan a way to share highlights of their reading with the wider community; then they trade members with other finishing groups, select more reading, and move into a new cycle. Once readers can successfully conduct their own wide-ranging, self-sustaining discussions, formal discussion roles may be dropped (Daniels, 1994).

How is this kind of activity any different from those which already take place in the classroom? - I asked myself this very same question when I first started researching the topic. Sure it looked a little different in that it involved discussion roles (i.e. Discussion Director, Literary Luminary, Illustrator, etc.) but really, how different can one kind of reading group be from another, right? The difference comes from the kinds of things that the circles do. Literature circles are much, much more than a simple gathering of students for the purposes of discussing what they have read (or have not read, as is often the case) - they involve real discussion and interrogation of the text from a variety of contexts. "Such conversations help students to discover, for example, how their own ideas - of friendship, love hate, honesty, dishonesty, hope, despair - are similar to or different from those of others" (ELA Grades 7-9 Curriculum Guide, 119). When I think back on my own schooling experiences, the majority of groups that I was involved in (and these were very few), were little more than a combined effort to answer a question or a group of questions set by our teacher about readings that seemed totally removed from anything we found interesting. The problem was that while we were learning how to identify elements of irony and metaphor, etc., the entire situation seemed constructed and unnatural. This is where literature circles get much of their power - the students that participate in these groups are genuinely involved in the entire process of selecting, reading, discussing and relating the items that they encounter. Literature circles teach children to view reading as something that is done for a purpose other than to get grades - indeed, all too often in our system do we find that grades/marks are a commodity; that students somehow come to believe that it is not the material they study or the skills they learn and develop that are of importance, but that grades are the be-all end-all of education. This is not to say that grades are not important, not in the least, but what I mean here is that grades ought to be seen as a reflection of ability and proficiency instead of their purpose.

Literature circles give students the opportunity to shed the shackles of grading schemes, bell-curves and the like, and learn to enjoy reading on a level that I personally never experienced until I started reading for pleasure (which I am sad to confess, did not happen until near the end of my teens). That is, they learn to critically analyze texts rather than to simply read them. Just as my father and I discussed and constructed meaning from Earl B. Pilgrim's Will Anyone Search for Danny? in a very open and even playful manner, citing references from the book and bringing in our own interpretations of how certain elements from our everyday lives relate to it, etc., so too do students partake in such rich, powerful and rewarding discussions in literature circles - they become mature readers. Becoming a mature reader is no simple task; it involves, for most students, a process of breaking away from the idea of reading as an activity that is separated from everyday life to the realization that reading can also be done for pleasure and personal growth and for many people, it is an essential part of everyday life. This kind of learning is encouraged by the Foundation for the Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum, which states that "This curriculum emphasizes interactive learning in an environment that fosters development of the abilities to communicate effectively and to think critically both within and beyond the classroom (emphasis mine, 40). In literature circles, this process is facilitated by exploration and construction of meaning through serious interaction with each other and the text itself. Writing on student led discussions in Book Club (another kind of reading group that shares many of the ideals of literature circles), Susan I. McMahon states that:

Students . . . engage in exploratory talk reflecting "literate thinking." When engaged in such thought, individuals make their positions explicit, connect their arguments to their position and that of others, consider alternatives, and reflect on previous arguments and their own work. Thus Book Club [and likewise, literature circles] is not simply encouraging more student talk, but a high quality of student discourse related to texts (McMahon, 91).

To smooth the progress of becoming mature readers, students in literature circles are assigned discussion roles which are designed to teach them the various ways of interpreting and analyzing literature. Daniels lists and provides examples of the roles that he employs in his classroom, while at the same time making note of the fact that whereas he and his colleagues "think of these as "generic" sets, . . . almost everyone who does literature circles has a personalized version" (Daniels, 76). Of these generic sets of role sheets which Daniels refers to here, I am most interested in those which are designed for the study of (i)fiction, (ii)non-fiction, and (iii)two special roles for jigsawing and for heterogeneous groups (the others having to do with subjects that are not overtly relevant to intermediate/secondary education in Newfoundland, ibid.). These roles are only temporary - today a student may be the Literary Luminary and locate a few special sections of the text that s/he feels ought to be shared orally and tomorrow, s/he may be the Vocabulary Enricher and select certain words that carry a particular denotative or even connotative importance. The roles are designed to provide students with a way of looking at literature from different angles and the intention/assumption is that students will gradually internalize these roles to the point that they will be able to discard the distracting formality of role sheets and participate in open discussions (where, of course, they will employ all of the skills that they have learned from assuming discussion roles in previous sessions). The point at which students are able to drop the sheets, as it were, varies and requires close attention on the part of the teacher.

Oh, yes! The teacher. What, you might ask is the teacher's role in all of this? Finally, the teacher gets the chance to get away from talking at the class and dictating the meaning of this or that (as is most often the case, even in so-called class-discussions) and hand the reigns of learning over to the learners. This is not a simple concept and most teachers who have been out in the system for a long time will probably have a hard time accepting their role as facilitator rather than lecturer. That is, while the teacher may observe and even participate in group discussions, s/he may not take charge. "The teacher's main job in literature circles is to not teach, at least in the traditional sense of the term . . . the teacher's work in literature circles is complex, artful, and absolutely essential" (Daniels, 25). In other words, while it is the teacher's job to gather books, observe and assess, it is essential that the students remain in control of the process. This constitutes one of the twelve main constituents or key features of literature circles as listed by Harvey Daniels. He notes that while not all of these elements are necessary (indeed, in certain circumstances, changes are necessary), for the activity to be truly one of literature circles, the majority of these elements must be present. They are:

1. Students choose their own reading materials.
   
2. Small temporary groups are formed, based on book choice.
   
3. Different Groups read different books.
   
4. Groups meet on a regular, predictable schedule to discuss their reading.
   
5. Kids use written or drawn notes to guide both their reading and discussion.
   
6. Discussion topics come from the students.
   
7. Group meetings aim to be open, natural conversations about books, so personal connections, digressions, and open-ended questions are welcome.
   
8. In newly forming groups, student play a rotating assortment of task roles.
   
9. The teacher serves as a facilitator, not a group member or instructor.
   
10. Evaluation is by teacher observation and student self-evaluation.
    
11. A spirit of playfulness and fun pervades the room.
    
12. When books are finished, readers share with their classmates and then new groups form around new reading choices.

One of the most exciting things about literature circles is that there is no segregation between the high-level and low-level readers, at least not nearly as much as would exist in other contexts. Often times in literature circles, teachers report that students of different levels interact on a somewhat level playing field: "literature circles are one of the most powerful natural structures for heterogeneous grouping . . . the diverse learning styles accessed by the role sheets allow all kinds of kids to shine in discussion, at least on some days" (Daniels, 180). Indeed, it becomes clear that participation in literature circles actually enhances the ability of slower students to become involved in classrooms: "Most kids who are labeled as learning disabled or special ed are actually able to do just fine with higher-order thinking - for many, it is the lower-order operations (like decoding text on a page) that gives them trouble in school" (ibid.).

The fact that literature circles contribute to heterogeneity in the classroom gives rise to some very exciting possibilities. Active and meaningful discussion about literature is at the heart of literature circles and regardless of reading ability, age, gender, race and a variety of other differences that exist among children, everyone can contribute and gain from discussions. In fact, it quickly becomes clear that these elements actually enhance literature circles! That is, diversity in thought, perception, and understanding contribute to the effectiveness of any analysis, especially one as collaborative and unique as literature circles. Indeed, being confronted with someone else's interpretation of a text may change one's own understanding of it. Ruth H. Huehler of San Antonio, Texas writes about her adult reading circle: "Over and over I hear members say, I didn't think the book this week was very interesting when I was reading it at home, but after hearing the discussion, I thought it was the most fascinating book I had read in years" (Kuehler, 181). As variety is beneficial to situations where literature circles are working, this contributes to the growing philosophy that students ought to be taught in multiage classrooms.

Literature Circles and the Multiage Classroom

The Concept of the multiage classroom is one which I am also very excited about.

A multiage classroom is one in which the developmental range is wider than in a single-grade classroom . . . in [such a setting], children's developmental diversity is celebrated, valued as part of a natural community of learners, and harnessed in subtle ways to support learning . . . the teacher functions more as a guide or an observer . . . A multiage class is characterized by children's constant interaction with each other, with the materials in the classroom, and with the available adults (Bingham, et. al., 6-7).

Literature circles and multiage classrooms share a very similar philosophy towards education - they both, as Bingham writes, "celebrate" diversity. Right now, most of the study and implementation regarding multiage classrooms, like most of the studies that I have read concerning literature circles, seems to be centered around younger children - usually in the primary grades. Perhaps this has something to do with the open acceptance of new things among children, perhaps it simply means that there is little being done in the older grades; whichever the case may be, it is clear that neither of the two ought to be confined to the primary level.

While there are no limits to what literature circles and multiage classrooms can do on their own, if they are put together one can only expect great things! We have already seen (above) that literature circles promote homogeneous classrooms, and likewise, we find that "The multiage classroom works best as a heterogeneous group of learners (Stone, 34). It ought to be viewed as natural then, that in multiage classrooms, a kind of literature circle activity actually takes place already (this comes as no surprise, considering their natural similarity), except that here, they are referred to as literacy groups.

The groups meet two or three times a week, depending on when parent help is available. They are one of the many ways children experience writing and reading in the classroom. The composition of these groups changes frequently in order to broaden the children's exposure to one another and to avoid stagnant groupings in which children associate themselves with a fixed reading level. At times students arrange themselves in groups based on the topics they have chosen (Bingham et. al, 141).

Does this description sound familiar? Indeed, I expect that the literacy groups of this teacher's multiage classroom may have been founded on literature circles, but include just enough changes that they must be called something different. While this is the case however, it is obvious that with a couple of moves into the right direction, literature circles could become an integral part of the multiage classroom. But what are the benefits of such a setting? Well, beyond the benefits of the literature circle, the multiage classroom takes the formalized notion of age-separation out of the picture. Thus, children experience a less constructed and foreign kind of learning where they are encouraged to think for themselves and learn together. "Autonomy is a critical issue in multiage classroom where it is imperative that children take charge of their own learning" (Stone, 6).

Learning naturally - that is what the multiage classroom is about; and likewise, literature circles are geared towards teaching students to become natural, proficient readers. This reflects the kind of theories that Australian linguist and learning theorist Brian Cambourne puts forward in his work An Integrated Language Arts Classroom in Action. That is, his ideas hold that learning can be maximized in the classroom by creating the right conditions for learning. These conditions are immersion, demonstration, expectations, responsibility, approximations, employment, response and engagement (Meeks, 74). This integration is founded on the idea that if the conditions of learning which exists in everyday, real life are brought into the classroom, kids will be more likely to learn the material. Both literature circles and multiage classrooms attempt to do just that - to help kids learn the way that they are used to learning: through and with one another.

Literature Circles and Technology

It is a fact of contemporary existence that technology surrounds us in our everyday lives. We use bank machines, surf the internet, microwave our popcorn and watch the latest graphically enhanced movies on our DVD systems. Even now, as I sit, writing this paper, I am plodding away on my keyboard, listening to music playing softly over the speakers connected to the back of my Pentium computer. Even the Foundation for the Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum has expanded forever the definition of literacy "to encompass media and information literacies, offering students multiple pathways to learning through an engagement with a wide range of verbal, visual, and technological media" (Class Handout, Education 4143 - Fall 2000). In fact, one of the Essential Graduated Learnings outlined in the Atlantic Provinces Education Foundation is Technological Competence. This means that, like it or not, technology is fast becoming an essential part of the English Language Arts classroom. What does this mean for literature circles? Many would argue that there are many negative consequences to including technology in the English language arts classroom - they would be right. However, it is up to the teacher, who is now faced with the undeniable fact that computers are here and that students are expected to know and use them, to find ways of successfully integrating them into his/her teaching style. I believe that, with a little knowledge and skill, teachers of English Language Arts can indeed incorporate technology into the classroom and make use of them for positive gain (as opposed to allowing themselves, and therefore their students, to become frustrated with it). In addition, I believe that the literature circle is one area in which computers can be very useful.

Beyond the obvious inclusion of technological media and computer generated texts on the internet, etc., there are also many other possibilities for technology and literature circles. One aspect in which technology can be used to enhance literature circles is the idea of e-mail. The Foundation for the Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum states that

Given available technologies, the curriculum at every level should, to the fullest extent possible, include experiences which build students' confidence and competence in using a range of information-retrieval and information processing technologies to meet their own information needs. Such experiences should involve students, for example, in . . . using e-mail [an extensive list exists here, but my focus at this point is on e-mail] (40).

Through the use of the internet and e-mail (as well as other information exchange systems like ICQ, Alta-Vista Forums, etc.) literature circles can transcend the boundaries of the classroom. To be precise, students can communicate in the same kind of meaningful ways that they do in literature circles, with students in other schools and even with students in other countries! I would not recommend this activity until after students have already become accustomed to using literature circles, and even then, it is clear that this kind of discussion group would require careful observation and therefore more work for the teacher - but think of the possibilities! This kind of on-line communication in the school system is not a new concept, it is simply a new expansion of literature circles. Indeed, Jim Greenlaw writes that students

can become involved in intercultural communication activities . . . through the Epals Classroom Exchange program. This site has already linked more than seven hundred and fifty thousand students in ten thousand classrooms across ninety countries so that student can learn to express themselves across cultures by communicating with each other via the Internet (Greenlaw, 156).

The inclusion of technology into the concept of literature circles is a very big step - most teachers are probably not fully aware of what the circles are (or can be) by themselves, let alone when they incorporate the big-bad-wolf that we call technology. There is hope for this idea however, at least that is what an article that appeared in a recent edition of English Journal points toward. Rebecca Bowers Sipe reports the exciting results of her use of interactive exchanges between her students and a group of university students. While this is not even close to the kind of exchange that could take place in a virtual literature circle, it does have that flavour to it. She writes that "Of particular importance to students at both levels was the opportunity to learn from and with each other" (Sipe, 108). In addition, and in unwitting support of my proposition, she reports that "For university and high school students alike, being able to reach beyond the confines of the classroom proved to be a powerful experience" (ibid.).

Beyond e-mail exchange however, there are other advantages to the integration of technology into literature circles. Danylo Hawaleshka writes: "In a world where music, movies and mail have all been digitized, it should come as no surprise that Canadian libraries have started to lend electronic versions of their books" (Hawaleshka, 58). One of the main problems of getting literature circles started as discussed in Daniels' book is the difficulty in finding a good variety of books. The digitizing of traditional literature, while it does take something away from the reading itself (the removal of the tangible/tactile experience of reading a good book), offers an excellent opportunity for schools to expand their selections without having to buy a load of heavy, expensive books. While it is clear that eBooks (as they are called) are without a doubt very expensive at the moment, the time will soon come when they will be accessible to everyone at an affordable price. I ought to note here that according to Hawaleshka's article, one eBook can store aboutten novels. This is only one kind of technological expansion of text however; we ought not to forget that hypertext and other media forms are also now considered to be part of the expanded definition of text in our curriculum, which opens them up for interrogation in literature circles as well.

Conclusion

It is clear that literature circles represent a very exciting and innovative method of getting students to read, discuss and love reading. They facilitate the development of students into mature readers and teach them how to look at texts from various different perspectives in order to construct clear meaning. While it is part of the job of an English language arts teacher to help students learn to enjoy reading, literature circles helps them understand that good books, and good ideas, ought to be shared with others. My father and I will undoubtedly continue to discuss Will Anyone Search for Danny? for a long time, each of us attempting to learn from and teach one another until we are clear and satisfied on all aspects of the book. I will conclude by quoting Don Gutteridge on his discussion of what should be the case when one is finished with a book because this is one point that I found lacking in all of my research - all that was said was that when students are finished, they move on to the next book and a new literature circle. But when are students truly finished? Gutteridge writes:

When a reader has finished reading a whole text, he or she should be left with a sense of closure; of having had all questions (self [or group] raised) answered; of having pursued the flow of meaning through whatever cumulative phases it has taken; and, in general, ought to feel that some whole thought has been grasped through a progressive comprehension of parts (Gutteridge, 10).

Bibliography

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