The expert and the farmer

Experts working in development cooperation, such as those in agricultural projects, are highly trained in their profession, full of ideas and ambitious to get things done, even when conditions are unfavourable. They do not need to be prodded. But their training is mostly a technical specialization and this often causes insufficient understanding of the social context of their technical proposals. It is not always easy to understand the motives and attitudes of counterparts and target groups.

A drive of good intentions and professional goals is mostly characteristic of experts in development projects. The good intentions are at times frustrated. Many causes have been advanced to explain this. One that usually escapes attention is that in most cases the expert is not used to looking critically into his own motives and attitude to life, while for the counterparts these are important for deciding to give trust and cooperation. Using the highest ideals one adheres to for the project as well as for one’s own attitude and behaviour might remove obstacles to fruitful cooperation. It may even add joy to professional work when one succeeds better in contributing to durable development.

From time to time governments review development cooperation to see how it adds to real development. At present, weariness grows about the effectiveness of aid to reduce the important problems of poverty, health care, education and especially local productivity. Important barriers to development are international trade relations and in a number of countries the excessively high debt limits useful investments.

I would certainly put myself in the category of experts for whom the two points are valid. I mean the unexpected fact that the thorough training of the expert limits at times insight in the social effects of technical measures. And enthusiasm not streamlined by critical revision of motives and attitude to life may lead to poor teamwork or even produce quiet or open antagonism within the project. This may lead to a waste of effort that causes disappointment and then contributes to scepticism about development cooperation in general.

You will find in this brochure three shortened articles about the expert and the farmer. The articles have been published earlier and are put together here. Interspersed between the articles are poems and a few statements made in doctoral theses. The source references are given each time.

N.B. The reader will notice that it is possible to find similarities of the problems and their solutions in rural development cooperation as compared to development cooperation in general. The expert with experience and insight derived from projects, as described in this brochure, touches upon keys that could unlock other, even larger, issues. Seen on a world scale, the most pressing issues of agriculture to be solved are probably the development towards global trade, donor policy and debt, vision of the expert himself, the own universe of the land user and other issues, such as the scale of agricultural enterprises.

Ir. Eelko Bergsma,

Enschede, December 2003

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The Bridge between Land User and Adviser

Farmer’s thinking

There is the story (Young, 1988) of the expert on first reconnaissance. He arrives at the site of investigation for soil conservation, in a landscape full of erosion. Severe surface erosion and gullies can be observed all around. When he asks the farmer: “what is the most pressing need, what new thing would you want most for your farm?” the farmer answers: “roads, so we can bring our products to the market, earn money and buy fertilizer.”

And in another area, full of erosion, the farmer may answer: “knitting machines, so our wives can earn money by making clothes.”

How much do we know of the farmer’s concepts and attitudes to soil erosion? What is required to motivate farmers to apply soil conservation practices? And what is needed to make farmers continue with conservation and adequately maintain works, which already are installed? (Sanders, 1985).

Adviser and farmer both have ideas

Between the adviser and the land user, a common love for the land and its use may be the source of greater understanding of one another. Advice, of course, should be reliable, professionally well founded, taking into account sustained land use. It should itself be given in a sustained way: with occasion for repeated consultation over a period that may be counted in years.

One example of such cooperation between land user and adviser is the type of experimental plots where different views are expressed in different ways of cultivation, and the reality of one or more seasons may prove the comparative value of each cultivation system. It may give equal opportunity to each of the people involved: the farmer (also the woman farmer), the extension officer following the official recommendations for the district, the extension worker following the recommendations plus conclusions from his own experience, the foreign expert. Several different ways of cultivation may be laid out. At the endof the year’s growing season the results of erosion, runoff, output, efficiency of input, and preference of the land user can be compared.

One probably finds that some new combination of ideas is worth trying next season, apart from repeating existing systems.

The example of the experimental plot set-up is taken to illustrate the importance of:

- giving the same weight to the land user as a person as to the expert or extension officer

- incorporating as much indigenous knowledge as possible in the new recommendations, because this knowledge stems from long periods of adjustment to the local natural conditions.

- accelerating the study of local traditional ways of cultivation, because in this experience may be valuable elements for future sustainable land use. In many regions worsening agricultural

- conditions force farmers to other sources of livelihood. Also land users may feel that pressure of advice is overwhelming, and they leave their old ways and change to new ones, possibly encouraged by short-term benefits.

From concern to action

From France comes an example of development of the countryside, where in some areas sons did not want to continue farming, and moved to the cities, and country girls could not find husbands easily; the towns grow and the countryside stagnates. This process threatens the very existence of small villages. Schools are discontinued because of low numbers of pupils.

Analysis of this need to support the countryside, and stimulate living conditions, led to industrial investment. When Cannon needed a factory, it was decided to put it in the Brittany countryside and contribute to local development. Four hundred ladies were employed. Each day bus transport was provided for them. In this way they were able to remain living in the villages. Mr.Kaku, president of the International Canon Company opened the factory. In his view, planning must included ethical considerations in order to be successful in the long term, otherwise problems will arise.

Another instance of development created in the French countryside took place in the area of Clermont Ferrand. A dismissed employee of a factory took an initiative. He got into contact with two researchers of the university. He took the risk of creating a small company. For this purpose he bought an abandoned factory building and began the production of essence of pines, which eventually found a use in perfume making and several other widely different applications. A market was found for these various uses of the extracted chemicals. Later he has extended his activity to essences of different plants, which then need to be cultivated in the area. Several tens of persons could be employed. Local initiative, combining a concern for people with commercial enterprise, contributed to the sustained development of this rural area.

In these cases of the French countryside, the people who identified themselves with the situation helped greatly to find viable solutions. Ideas that appeared morally right proved financially realistic.

Understanding takes time

Students of a first world country, working in the North of Thailand on their PhD, lived for months in a village in their research area.

On the steep slopes, one of the cash crops is cabbage, which usually fetches a good price in the market. The marketing requires roads for transport. After discussing the farmer’s choice of crops and planting systems, some of them traditional, very efficient and copied from earlier areas of settlement, one of these students remarked:” that is why I try to live in the village as much as possible, to find the reasoning for their way of doing, why they do things the way they do, and perhaps have no choice to do it differently (Turkelboom, 1994; Vlassak et al., 1993).

Villagers resolve feuds and build ponds

A story of rural development, with limiting factors of personal strife and political rivalry, comes from India (Smith, 1993) and is reported under the title: “Indian village of joy”. The story recounts the pioneering of a development that is transforming the local farming economy and lifting the villagers out of poverty. It is not unique, of course, but the Dorkasai village has not depended on the expertise of agricultural scientists. Rather, it has blossomed, thanks almost entirely to the determination of the villagers themselves.

Today the villagers boast 35 small reservoirs, or ponds, and 150 in the surrounding area. They support fish farming and irrigation. Crops are plentiful throughout the year: ‘ladies fingers’ as the thin green brinjal are called, tomatoes, onions and rice. The money they provide makes it possible for the villagers to stay on the land rather than join the mass migration to the big cities in search of work and bread. Already half of India’s urban population lives in slums and shanties. Rural poverty continues to fuel the flight to the cities at a rate equivalent to several small village populations each week.

In this case the bridge is between a villager with wide orientation called Singh, and another villager, named Shailendra, who equally took essential initiatives. The episode that formed the bridge in this story is the following.

“Singh, from a village background himself, had risen to become chief metallurgist at the Tata Engineering Company. Seconded to the company’s Rural Development arm, he was now in charge of the Gram Vikas Kendra (Village Development Centre). As the two men talked, they came up with the idea of digging village ponds for fish and irrigation.”

But first there was a hurdle to overcome. A new cooperation in the village had to be created between two parties that were active in the village. “When one tried to do something for the development of the village, the other would mock it. Their rivalry was blocking any progress and all work had come to a standstill.”

It looked like a huge obstacle to Shailendra to go and apologise to his political opponent in the village. “Shailendra was in a dilemma. How could he befriend a man he had only spoken to with abuse? Plucking up his courage he visited Thakurdas at his home”.

The soil doctor, an assistant who is readily available

The attitude of the farmer is far from being the stereotype limitation to new ideas. “They, the farmers, are keen enough” (Pitsanu, 1994). Mr.Pitsanu, Head of "Regio 9" of Land Development in Thailand, recounted a development which started in his regio, and which can be titled: the Soil Doctor My personal immediate reaction was that this is a very unscientific name, but I discovered that an interesting rural development was behind it. A new approach by the officials met with keen response of the farmers.

In every land development unit of Region 9, a technical officer functions as a soil doctor. That is to say, he has at his disposal a box containing equipment for quick field-testing of soils. He carries maps with him, and so he can give advice about levels of fertilizer needed by an individual farmer. The system has worked for three years, and the farmers do not hesitate to ask advice. Even more telling is that the system has been introduced in several other regions of Land Development.

The system was first suggested at a meeting in the time of the former Director-General of the Land Development Department, Dr.Sitalap. The subject of the meeting was technology transfer. It was argued that visits to farmers by the officers were all right, but assistance given was not complete. The Department stood for development, but its public image could be improved. Its role as a resource base was not strongly developed. Much knowledge and experience, which had accumulated over the past 29 years, could be put to more practical use. A conclusion was to set up a model of local adviser under the name “soil doctor.”

After a report was published on this meeting, initiative was taken in Region 9 to carry out this plan. It started on a small scale, and at a visit by the Director-General support was expressed. “I have seen your soil doctor. Go ahead.”

On a popular television channel, a 25-minute film was shown, condensed from a full 12 hours day of filming the activities of the “Barefoot Soil Doctor”. His work of visits to farmers in the village and giving advice was shown. Subsequently, small sections of the film were included in a regular agricultural television program. From the village, the advice spread around to other farmer’s villages.

Now the policy is more to let the land users decide themselves, on the basis of advice of a range of possible land uses. Arguments for the suggestions are given; limitations for plant growth are explained. “Why is this soil not suitable for growing mango? That is because the soil is too shallow.” Fertiliser recommendations are followed by amounts prescribed for the particular soil, so that overuse of fertilizer under pressure of merchants is avoided.

What is right?

“When my father got the idea to reduce his stock by one third, and the decision was made and carried out, it meant hardship for the family for years. But the resulting grazing intensity has now become national policy, and so is the system of rotational grazing which my father introduced in the early days.”

These remarks were made by David (Kingwill, 1993), the son of Roly Kingwill, who in the early thirties, listening to his inner voice trying to get guidance for his life and the farm, decided that reduction of stocking was right, considering the erosion which became more and more apparent on the ‘veld’, the grass plains of the Karroo in South Africa. A film has been made about these developments; it is called “Promise of the Veld”. It shows how initiative of a farmer, supported by a strong conviction, introduced new ideas of land management that proved to be beneficial, and of general value. In this case the bridge between the land user and the official was crossed from the farmer’s side.

The year 1993 had a severe drought, but on this farm for half the herd no feed had to be bought, reflecting the sustained productivity of the land since the dramatic change in management so many years ago. Even in a later drought period, no drought money was needed. The spring that is shown in the film still runs. “We beware about pumping, which would exhaust the underground water supply.”

The video that was produced in 1985 was then banned from being shown in South Africa, because it showed an uncommon cooperation of the races. After the political change, the army in its national training program used the video.

David Kingwill had the function of Head of the Conservation Committee and was elected Vice-president of the Farmers Union. “The apology my father made to his work force was ‘not done’ at the time. He felt he had to do it. It changed his attitude. The typical white attitude was: white is always right; do not show weakness; do not let go of power.”

“The decisions to do things differently were extremely hard to make. Social contact was cut off; people avoided us in the street. But many practices that were introduced on the farm are now official policy, the neighbours ask our advice, we consult again each other. A sustainable agriculture and a sustainable society are really one.”

This common undertaking needs personal commitment

The function and results of a lively Indonesian NGO is reviewed in its magazine by its director (Ismawan, 1992) under the title “The common undertaking needs personal commitment”. It says: “In the 25 years of its existence Bina Swadaya has diversified its programs to research, education and training, consultancy, etc. Examples of recent programs are the introduction of irrigation in a previously rain fed area of rice cultivation n West Java, and secondly, in cooperation with the government of Riau, the development of fish chip production and gardening of fruits and vegetables for a fishing community.”

“But what is the meaning of this contribution to a nation of more than 180 million people, mostly the less privileged, who are facing the latent problems of poverty and backwardness? Humbly speaking, I should be admitted that this contribution is nothing, al the more so from the quantitative point of view.”

“It appears there is more than a nuance of difference however, if we think in a more qualitative and strategic way. In an operational context, we are making our activities into a social laboratory, while trying to maintain good quality of work. With the support of the government policies, these activities are going to have impacts on the macro level, and in its commitment to help the poor, it seeks cooperation with other development actors: the government, busines

communities, universities, and particularly the poor. In this perspective, Bina Swadaya operators must always be ready to learn from the process and experience and to develop harmony between their life’s ambition and the Agency’s work.”

An emphasis, parallel to that of Bina Swadaya, can be found in FAVDO, Forum of African Voluntary Development Organisations, founded in 1987 and working in 14 African countries. This NGO mobilizes rural communities to state their needs to the bigger community, and it consults with international NGO’s on the kind of assistance that would be most beneficial for local rural development projects. It enables grass-roots people to formulate their own strategies. It mobilizes rural communities to state their needs (Okoro, 1994).

The examples of the two NGO’s, one from Asia and one from Africa, point to the land user as a source of ideas. It is up to the expert and adviser to help mobilize these ideas. This will require sometimes a change of attitude in the knowledgeable person. As a researcher from Germany puts it: “The difficulty of attitudes may lie in the fact that we as scientists give other people the feeling that we are superior, we need a change of attitude ourselves to be able to talk to people on an equal basis” (Bartels, 1989).

Closing remark

The cases reviewed above, may kindle the imagination and inspiration of experts to widen the bridge of understanding and cooperation, which we have to build together, knowledgeable experts and land users. This cooperation will be needed to realize sustainable land use, and sustainable societies.

References

Bartels, Helga, 1989 - Quotation in short report on programs and proceedings, Dialogue on the Preservation of Creation, Mountain House, Caux, Switzerland.

Ismawan, Bambang, 1992 - This common undertaking needs personal commitment, p. 13-14, Newsletter of Bina Swadaya, Community of Self-reliance Development Agency, Jakarta, Indonesia, nr.9, 1992.

Kingwill, D. 1993 - personal communication, and speaking in the film “The promise of the veld”, Westminster Videos, 12 Palace Street, London SWIE 5JB.

Okoro, Choice, 1994 - Power to the Farmer, p. 12 in For A Change, Vol. 76, no. 3.

Sanders, D.M., 1985 - quoted in: Research on farmer motivation is key to future. An FAO view, World Association of Soil and Water Conservation Newsletter, Vol. 2, nr. 1.

Smith, M., 1993 - Indian village of joy, p.4-8 in For A Change, Vol. 6, nr. 8.

Pitsanu, Attaviroj, 1994 - personal communication, Chiang Mai, May 1994 (Pitsanu Attaviroj is the Director of Land Development Region 9, Nakornswam Province, Thailand).

Turkelboom, F., 1994 - personal communication, Chiang Rai, May 1994

Vlassak, K., Somchai Ongprasert, Amat Tancho, Katelijne van Look, Francis Turkelboom and Lut Ooms 1993 - Soil Fertility Conservation Research Report 1989/1992. Soil Fertility Conservation Project, Meejo University, Chiang Mai.

Young, A. 1988 - personal communication, International Soil Conservation Organisation (ISCO) Conference, Bangkok. Experience of ICRAF, the International Institute of Agro-Forestry, Nairobi.

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Source: Bergsma E. 1998: The bridge between land user and adviser, p.1203-1210 in: L.S.Bushan, I.P.Abrol & M.S.Rama Mohan Rao (eds.): Soil and Water Conservation - challenges and opportunities. 8^th International Soil Conservation Conference, ISCO, 1994, Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists, Dehra Dun, India.

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A soil, a farmer and a wise man

(only for readers who look for new ideas)

Once there was a soil who said:

“My future sure looks pretty bad,

oh dear, I am eroding fast,

this way long I cannot last.”

The farmer said: “My soil,

so dear, for you I toil,

it makes me sad you wash away,

what can I do to make you stay?”

The expert came and had a look,

he did not say much but wrote in a book.

He thought: “Could I but know the cause,

my colleagues gave me great applause.

He wanted to study the problem more,

and would need equipment, a lab,

and dollars by the score.

A wise man said: “Dear expert,

look wide around, to find the ground

for what farmers do, improve and test it,

simply, on fields that will show it.

The expert’s wife said: “Listen dear,

did you not hear that man so wise

offer us some good advice?

We will live on the land

till we find which plant

resists the rain and gives a good stand.

Not long after, the soil - now well protected

and carrying plants in a way few had expected -

enjoyed a sustained yield,

and is happy again in his field.

Written on fieldwork with students in Thailand.

E.Bergsma, 5-5-1989.

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Land Husbandry – can it be a partnership

between farmers, land developers, and extension workers?

Already in 1983, experience obtained with rural extension work in Thailand turned the attention from the attitude of the land user to the attitude of the experts. Upayokin et al. (12) concluded from a study in northeastern Thailand that the motivation to increase conservation should fit the local cultural, social and ideological values of the people. The soil conservationist must find out what motivates farmers.

The erosion hazard of a cultivation system, its sustainability and its land ownership all affect conservation policy. But often the dominant factor is the approach of the advisor to the land user (Figure 1). The advisor’s attitude has an important influence on the creation and implementation of land husbandry (¹)(1).

The way of the adviser in effecting change

Reports of a reorientation of the attitude of land use advisors are not numerous, and a change in attitude is not often seen linked with the development and application of technical solutions. But Thapliyal et al. (11) report on an integrated watershed management project in the Doon Valley in northern India. They document a reorientation of the attitude of government staff and also emphasize the need of change in the attitudes of the land user. The reported willingness of the advising officers to change their approach helps to create a willingness on the part of the land users to adjust their attitude. Procedures and techniques of the project have been described in detail. The disparity between the priorities of the villagers and the wider watershed management objectives is reported. For solutions, it is suggested that the priority demands of land users should be met at the start of the planning and at the beginning of a cooperative process. This will also bring the wider objectives of the project within reach.

These ideas will need more than a routine approach. It is sometimes necessary to provide alternative income for land users, that is more stable than before – through, for example, irrigation or community plantations. In partially forested areas, conservation plans must be able to compete with the income derived from cutting even one large tree.

In the process of change, several phases have been recognized. One study (10) distinguishes two options in a process of change: to be the victim or to be the participant. Therefore it seems logical that soil and water conservation experts should offer the possibility to the land users to take part and play a role. The following phases are recommended: (i) an initiative to promote change; (ii) a period for farmers/advisors to become accustomed to new ideas and for relinquishing previous ways of doing/ planning things; (iii) the implementation of changes; and (iv) an integration of the new situation with everyday living. It is important not to underestimate the effort step two usually takes and to allow for it in the plans.

The planner’s advice will be much more acceptable when he keeps an open mind to the deep-seated values which often exist in rural communities; i.e. an awareness of being part of a holistic entity with the need to create harmony between man and the land.

This awareness is said to exist among all agricultural and pastoral people and the relationship between people and their land seems to be reciprocal: an awareness of the land by the people and a response to people by the land. If technicians are seen to acknowledge the reality of this “fifth dimension” (Figure 1), they are likely to get a better response and resonance with rural families (8).

The awareness of villagers about their natural surroundings is apparent in the knowledge they express about their soils, vegetation and growing conditions. An example of people’s perception is in the arid zone of Rajasthan, India (2) where generations-old experience has resulted in a classification of cultivated land into four groups of fertility, associated with the type of crops grown and its productivity. It would be wise for any new land-use plan to take these proven differences into account.

Systems of land use can be intricate, serving several purposes at the same time. Outsiders do not readily understand them. Those systems result from long experience, and often show an intimate relation with nature. An example is discussed by Sharma et al. (7). The north-eastern region of India comprises the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. Along hill slopes, a sequence of land use can be found, with forest at the top, a water-harvesting tank in the middle and a cattle yard and paddy fields towards the foot. Such a system from Nagaland, called “zabo”, is discussed in detail. Siltation tanks may be part of the system and several water tanks may be included. Cattle manure is guided towards the fields. Topsoil is spread evenly over the newly constructed terraces and fish are kept in the paddy fields.

Participation

In the name of participation, land users may be asked to cooperate in a project that they have not helped to design. Genuine participation would not only ask land users too help in previously designed plans but also ask them what plans they would like to propose regarding soil and water conservation or rural development in general (Figure 1). This approach

Figure 1. The importance of the approach of the advisor towards the farmer.

will interest them because it directly affects their daily lives. Farmers should see the benefit of conservation measures in the same year as improved practices are employed, a conclusion supported by many soil and water conservation projects (9). Farmer’s practices and the plans designed by experts will benefit from an exchange of ideas.

In my own experience, it is not rare to see practices in the central and northern Thai hilly areas which contain some elements of management that are valid for sustained land use under local conditions and which are completely new to a more theoretically trained person. Examples are raised beds for cabbage, which in certain patterns and on certain soils can give very good protection against soil loss, or mounds for cassava cultivation, transversal furrows on hillsides and small reservoirs at rill-recurrence sites.

As villagers nearly always interweave their habits of life and their farming practices with a traditional perspective of life, one has to tread carefully not to destroy the fabric of a local society for a theoretical gain or outside economic interests. Land development planning should include the experience of land users, for the benefit of those who live by making the land produce, those who plan recreation facilities and those who develop commercial opportunities, which are generated on the land both directly and indirectly (13).

Meeting needs, a door to enduring change

Incentives can bring about a measure of success in soil and water conservation that is more apparent than real. When incentives stop, the success may crumble. But when the land users’ own initiative has been involved, there is a more permanent basis for the practices that were carried out. The closer one comes to answering the needs of the land user, the closer might be the cooperation, which is available for the wider goals of soil and water conservation.

This type of participation opens the door to locally effective practices that support sustained land use (5). This is borne out by a study of the Integrated Rural Technology Centre (IRTC) in Palakkad, in collaboration with the Kerala Agricultural University and supported by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, the Government of India. In this project, in which farmers were considered as “equal partners”, vegetative barriers recommended by the research station were converted into “vegetally guarded conservation trenches and ridges”, through the innovative contributions and local experience of the farmers (3).

Once farmers feel that a technical possibility is beneficial to them, they will quickly adopt it. Soil conservation in Thailand has been propagated as a component of overall land development. A practice that is strongly promoted and adopted rapidly is that of farm ponds (6).

Access to research results and experiences in soil, water and nutrient management

Sustained land use and contented land users should be a primary aim of political parties, industrial enterprises and commercial banks, not to mention government officers and foreign experts, as it is in their own interest.

However, do the advisors in soil and water conservation bring up enough ideas and do they make them easily available to developers? When developers feel that they should include sustainable land-use planning for their project and help to give the rural population a sustainable livelihood, do they have access to an attractive array of technical possibilities? Clearly there should be regular meetings between land developers and advisors on soil and water conservation and representatives of the rural population that will be involved.

Conclusion

Care for the land will become a more practical proposition when it takes into account the needs and experience of the land user. Lack of a sharing system of research results and records of experience means that more attention needs to be paid to compiling data about techniques and applications of soil, water and nutrient research. It should be made more easily known to land developers, commercial banks and other planners, as well as to the professional land-use experts.

Note.

(¹) “Land husbandry” is the approach which concentrates on helping people to improve and maintain their agricultural system, instead of only concentrating on getting people to stop deforestation, overgrazing and overcultivation in places where success is unlikely because of the pressures. The approach emphasises productive cover of leaves, levels of organic matter, soil life and soil structure. Attention to these points will improve the farmer's result and will also reduce erosion (Shaxson 1997).

References

1. Bergsma, E. 1998 - The bridge between land user and adviser, p.1203-1210 in: L.S.Bushan, I.P.Abrol & M.S.Rama Mohan Rao, eds. : Soil and Water Conservation - challenges and opportunities. 8^th International Soil Conservation Conference, ISCO 1994. Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists, Dehra Dun, India.

2. Bharara, L.P. and Mathur, Y.N. 1994 - People’s perceptions and indigenous knowledge of land resource conservation, utilization and management strategies in the arid zone of Rajasthan, India. In: L.S.Bushan, I.P.Abrol & M.S.Rama Mohan Rao, eds. : Soil and Water Conservation - challenges and opportunities. 8^th International Soil Conservation Conference, ISCO, 1994. Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists, Dehra Dun, India.

3. Gopinathan, R. 1994 - VGCTR (Vegetative Guarded Conservation Trenches and Ridges), the farmer-contributed

vegetative technique for soil and water conservation in steep hill slopes. In: L.S.Bushan, I.P.Abrol & M.S.Rama Mohan Rao, eds. : Soil and Water Conservation - challenges and opportunities. 8^th International Soil Conservation Conference, ISCO, 1994. Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists, Dehra Dun, India.

4. Greenland, D.J., Bowen, G., Eswaran, H., Rhoades, R. and Valentin, C. 1994 - Soil, water and nutrient management research - a new agenda. IBSRAM Position Paper. Bangkok, Thailand. IBSRAM.

5. Report on the 6th Dutch Symposium on the Art of Changing, Symposium 1994. Network of Women Agricultural Engineers. Wageningen, the Netherlands. Landbouwkundig Tijdschrift, 1994, 4-5.

6. Ruanglertboon, V., Sombatpanit, S. and Theerawong, S. 1994 - Policy issues in soil and water conservation - Thailand experience. In: L.S.Bushan, I.P.Abrol & M.S.Rama Mohan Rao, eds. : Soil and Water Conservation - challenges and opportunities. 8^th International Soil Conservation Conference, ISCO, 1994. Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists, Dehra Dun, India.

7. Sharma, U.C., Prasad, R.N. and Sonowal, D.K. 1994 - An indigenous technique of soil and water conservation in northeastern region - the ‘zabo’ system of farming. In: L.S.Bushan, I.P.Abrol & M.S.Rama Mohan Rao, eds. : Soil and Water Conservation - challenges and opportunities. 8^th International Soil Conservation Conference, ISCO, 1994. Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists, Dehra Dun, India.

8. Shaxson, T.F. 1994 - Land Husbandry’s fifth dimension - enriching our understanding of farmer’s motivations.

In: L.S.Bushan, I.P.Abrol & M.S.Rama Mohan Rao, eds. : Soil and Water Conservation - challenges and opportunities. 8^th International Soil Conservation Conference, 1994. Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists, Dehra Dun, India.

Note (¹) Shaxson T.F., 1997 - Soil erosion and land husbandry, Land Husbandry, the International Journal of Soil

and Water Conservation, 2, no. 1, pp. 1-14.

9. Shaxson, T.F., Hudson, N.W., Sanders, D.W., Roose, E. and Moldenhauer, W.C. 1989 - Land Husbandry - a

framework for soil and water conservation. Soil and Water Conservation Society, in cooperation with the World

Association of Soil and Water Conservation, Ankeny.

10. Sherchan, D.P., Gurung, G.B. and Chand, S.P. 1992 - Pakhribas Agriicultural Centre Working Paper no. 29,

Pakhribas Agricultural Centre. Kathmandu, Nepal: PAC.

11. Thapliyal, K.C., Kumar, P. Lepcha, S.T.S., Chandra, B., Virgo, K.J. and Sharma, P.N. 1994 - <Participatory

watershed management in the Himalayas: experiences of the Doon Valley Project. In: L.S.Bushan, I.P.Abrol & M.S.Rama Mohan, eds. : Soil and Water Conservation - challenges and opportunities. 8^th International Soil Conservation Conference, ISCO, 1994. Indian Association of Soil and Water Conservationists, Dehra Dun, India.

12. Upayokin, P., Sookasame, K.A. and Sarobol, S. 1983 - Knowledge, perception and attitude towards soil and water

conservation: a case study in northeastern Thailand. Faculty of Social Sciences and humanities. Bangkok,

Thailand: Mahidol University.

13. Wijayaratna, C.M. 1994 - Integrating environmental and conservation concerns with production goals -

a participatory approach to land and water resource management in a watershed context (Sri Lanka).

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Source: Bergsma E., Land husbandry - can it be a partnership between farmers, land developers and extension workers?, p.123-130 in: Samran Sombatpanit, M.A.Zöbisch, D.W.Sanders, and M.G.Cook (eds.): Soil Conservation Extension - from concepts to adoption, 1996, Soil and Water Conservation Society of Thailand.

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Soils

Some soils are deep,

others are shallow,

some are stony,

others are mellow.

Some can be seen

depending on cover,

bush in the field,

grass and clover.

Some soils are suitable

have soft rock below,

some remain poisonous,

good that you know.

However shallow,

unseen or bad

you can now map them all,

once you have had,

a course like this.

But be sure you perform

not by what you learned,

not by the norm,

but by the need,

by what you understand

about the farmers, the farmers, the farmers.

Experienced experts in using land

trusting in you (maybe)

with little in hand

to buffer the chance

you give them just sand.

So go happy home,

and remember the drone:

the farmers, the farmers, the farmers.

Farewell poem for a student party,

to celebrate the completion of a study course.

E.Bergsma, Enschede, 1987.

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Incentives of Land Users in Projects of Soil and Water Conservation

-- the weight of intangibles

Introductiion

Incentives for soil and water conservation are ways to influence farmers to engage in certain types of management. But in how far do farmers have wider aims than producing dollar-equivalent output, and therefore in how far are they inclined to respond to dollar-equivalent incentives? Observations in literature about immaterial incentives of farmers in developing countries show the intangible nature of important convictions of farmers and how these convictions affect rural development projects.

In developing countries, the partial acceptance or complete refusal of advice for soil and water conservation is often attributed to the backwardness and stubbornness of the land users. Less attention has focussed on the attitude of the expert who gives the advice. His limited understanding of the non-material motivations of the land users has contributed its share to inappropriate advice.

Third world farmer's incentives in projects of soil and water conservation

The business view on farming

One of the most important incentives of farmers is the sustained subsistence and the business view on farming.

The business perspective on a farm undertaking is described for instance in a study of tobacco growing in Sri Lanka. The study states that a farmer usually views soil conservation from a business perspective because he has to survive in a competitive world and often struggles to meet his basic needs. Although he may be concerned about the long term and off-site cost of erosion, his decision whether or not to adopt soil conservation practices is dominated by the economic impacts those practices have on his farm business or his survival (Gunatilake et al., 1993, p. 106; Lovejoy et al. 1986). The high cost of conservation measures and the negative Net Present Values of conservation imply that in this case, most likely, the farmers will not adopt soil conservation measures unless there are incentives such as subsidy for soil conservation (Gunatilake et al., 1993, p. 109). A World Bank study emphasises profitability, but puts this in a wider context (Lutz et al. 1994):

"Profitability of conservation practices is a necessary condition for their adoption, but it is a wide, encompassing concept. Factors other than strict cost-benefit considerations also play a role. The effect of imperfect markets, for example, is reflected in higher prices for inputs, and this affects the profitability of production activities. And most often institutional issues, such as land tenure and access to credit must be considered together with the results of the cost-benefit analysis"

Tobisson (1993, p.61) makes important adjustments to the purely economic view on farmer's management:

“Peasant economies do not operate according to the economic laws assumed by neo-classical economists. For example, risk minimisation and family subsistence, rather than profit maximisation, constitutes a fundamental principle. Therefore sound economic analysis must be broader than the conventional cost-benefit analysis.”

Several other authors point to a wide view that is needed for economic analysis (Stocking 1988, p. 382):

"The farmer in developing countries is certainly an economically rational being, subject to incentives and disincentives as is the farmer in developed nations. But values attached to commodities and to money are often surprisingly different. So can cattle have a value while money cannot buy what is needed. The cattle are like a walking bank, and a symbol of wealth and prestige. So the value of money in a developing country can be very different. Extra cash offered in return for soil conservation may miss fundamental realities and will, therefore, not work."

The grower's view

In the approach to land improvement and conservation of water and soil, the farmer’s perspective must be understood and taken into full account if programs to assist them are to succeed (Shaxson 1997). Many authors stress this point. Brouwers (1993, p. 121) observed that in the daily practice of farmers, a constant attentiveness to possible improvement is present. Conceptualising types of farmers with terminology like 'progressive versus conservative', or 'innovator' versus 'laggard' do not do justice to the fact that each farmer is constantly involved in active search for

Thai farmer at his beds of ginger shoots,

in an orchard of plantain, mango and leechee.

possible improvements in agricultural practices, albeit in a variable, individual way.

The World Bank article, quoted earlier, examines the returns to investment in conservation measures mainly from the farmer's point of view (Lutz et al. 1994, p. 276). Next to economic factors, the report mentions 'the conservation ethic' of farmers.

Adjusting to the farmer’s interest and need is easier with the now often recommended approach of presenting a range of conservation options to farmers, and readily delivering of related technical assistance, on request of the farmers themselves, while avoiding 'red tape' (Attaviroj 1996).

Immaterial incentives, part of the farmer's view

The reported experience obtained in agricultural development projects, shows that the farmer’s viewpoint touches on factors that can be considered immaterial incentives.

Shaxson et al. (1977) stress respect for farmers' priorities and their goals. Conditions, aspirations and needs determine the prime concerns of farmers. Sutherland (1993), writing on soil and water management in Zambia, states that land husbandry (¹) is a spiritual concept.

Bweya & Mulenga (1993, p. 29) reporting on Malawi, say it is essential that the farmer does regard the improved practice as being in line with the farming system. Brouwers (1993, p. 123) studied in Benin the reaction of rural people to chemical soil degradation and found that yield assessment does not only relate to production ‘as most change agents tend to expect’ but also to political, social, economic and other factors. Attention for immaterial incentives of the people involved in a project is found in Kiwanuka (1993, p. 173), Stocking (1988, p. 382) and Cheatle (1993 p. 86).

A case that is a clear example of inner conviction derived from faith is the development on the Kingwill farm in the Karroo of South Africa (Bergsma 1996a). In this farm an excessive number of sheep started to be the cause of accelerated erosion. The farmer, worried about this, tried to find out what to do. As he says, by listening to his inner voice to collect thoughts he felt could come from the God in whom he had faith, he decided to reduce the herd by one third. Hardship for the family was of course the result, but their conviction made them persevere. The signs of gradual grass recovery and increasing discharge in the streams helped them to continue. At present the land on the farm has a sufficient buffer capacity to weather severe drought, which is common from time to time in this region. Eventually the developments on the farm even helped formulate official grazing recommendations.

The viewpoint of the expert in the third world

In land development projects of in the third world, just as elsewhere, conservation experts must take care not to misjudge the farmer. In the view of a soil conservation expert with large experience in third world countries: 'It would be good to look for what exactly is the motivation of the land users, and not discard what we ourselves may not feel' (Hudson 1993, p. 3).

Stocking (1988) stressed that the viewpoint of experts in the third world may be put forward by such a convincing analysis of local questions, that it suggests to encompass all essential points, even when aiming only at a partial sector of the well being of the people involved. It may in this way impose a vision, which is not easily corrected. A plan which does not explicitly considers the opinion of land users through participation² with the rural population involved, will easily pass it by.

The same has been expressed in strong terms by Chambers (1993, p. 101):

“There is a paradox. Sustainable development is to be sought first not in the farming family, or the community, but in ourselves, the trained professionals. Our power, beliefs, reductionism and short time horizons are much of the problem, while farmers' knowledge, systems thinking, long-term investments and enhanced competence and participation are much of the solution. It is not a case of either professional's knowledge and competence, or farmers' knowledge and competence. The need is for a balanced mix, which means a shift towards the farmers' side to enhance farmers' analysis and innovation.”

Brouwers (1993, p. 129-130) also warns for an incomplete approach of the adviser. Studies, which look at the life world of land users in terms of ‘knowledge’, social structures, and personal variation, reduce in this manner the contribution of rural people and do not allow for a translation of practical problems into technological answers by rural people themselves. Thus this translation is done by representatives of formal science who impose their scientific vision of the situation. An example is given of the oil palm farming systems, where a close relation exists between the oil palm system and different social activities as well as the social position of farmers.

The same caution is expressed by Shaxson et al. (1997, p. 3):

“As 'outsiders', our own perceptions and assumptions are derived from specific contexts of knowledge, culture, training and experience, and do not necessarily accord closely with the experiences and realities faced by farmers. Most often technical staff has focused solely on what they have seen as technically desirable to solve problems of erosion and runoff.”

Others express in similar ways a wish for a certain type of attitude of the expert/adviser (Dudal 1981, p.10; Gappa, 1993, p.162; Mohammed 1993, p. 171; Tukahirwa et al., 1993, p. 164).

Participation

Participation in land development is the approach that includes the ideas and concerns of the land user right from the inception of development plans onwards. It therefore seems the best way to avoid the pitfalls that may result from a limited view of the expert, and to include the farmer’s concerns.

Important is to recognise the difference between apparent and genuine participation (²), which is strongly noted in third world countries (Hurni et al. 1996, p. 8, 10). In introducing research studies on soil and water conservation, Hudson (1993, p. 3) writes: "Top-down programmes do not work well. The need is to work from the ground up, this means involvement of farms and families and community groups at all stages". Douglas (1993, p. 6) gives the same value to participation:

"required is a bottom-up, farmer first approach, involving farmers in identifying the problems and taking the decisions as to how they are to be overcome.”

For genuine participation (²), the approach of the adviser to the farmer must be based on mutual trust (Bergsma 1996). Chambers (1993a, p. 93) describes the key to participatory rural appraisal as 'good rapport'. For this to happen the behaviour and attitudes of the outsider as facilitator or catalyst are basic. Some of the keys to arrive at this good understanding of each other are: 'listening and learning; taking a keen interest; joining in activities; and patience'.

Conclusions

The need to provide for life’s necessities is often the dominant consideration of the farmer’s management; in the day-to-day life these efforts are essential for continuation of his family life and farm. On the longer term, the way in which a farmer provides for these primary needs influences his

decisions too. There is no question what is his prime concern, but the farmer has definite preferences about the context, the communal relations, and the spirit in which and by which he wants to run his farm and family life.

Gradually much evidence has been collected about the often unexpectedly large influence of intangible considerations in the decision-making process of land users in developing countries. In the strongly market-driven agriculture of more developed countries the intangible considerations become the less obvious, the more the profession of farming is commercialised.

In developing countries the partial acceptance or complete refusal of advice for soil and water conservation by land users is often attributed to their backwardness and stubbornness. Less attention has been focussed on the attitude of the expert who gives the advice. His limited understanding of the non-material motivations of the land user has contributed often to inappropriate advice.

Genuine participation is probably the best approach to land husbandry and soil and water conservation because it gives the chance to avoid imposing the limitations of the adviser’s view, it allows recognition of immaterial incentives in the farmers' management, and may help to create mutual trust between land users and advisers, all key factors in effective efforts towards land husbandry.

Intangible incentives related to land husbandry represent typical characteristics of farming. Though agriculture is often strongly commercialised in various parts of the world, the intangibles related to land husbandry should be taken into account when formulating plans for agricultural structure and farm policy.

The experience with the importance of intangible incentives in the third world should be a warning for policy makers in the first world. Apart from commercial interests, also intangible incentives are needed to realize political goals that aim at sustained agricultural production and sustained use of the environment.

Notes>

(²) “Genuine participation” includes the ideas and concerns of the land user right from the inception of development plans onwards.

References

Attaviroj, Pitsanu, 1996

Land development villages and soil doctors; strategies towards better land husbandry in Thailand. In Samran

Sombatpanit, Zöbisch M.A., Sanders D. & Cook M. (eds.), Soil Conservation Extension - from Concepts to

Adoption, pp.153-158, the Soil and Water Conservation Society of Thailand, Bangkok.

Bergsma E., 1996

Land husbandry, can it be a partnership between farmers, land developers and extension workers? In Samran

Sombatpanit, Zöbisch M. A., Sanders D. & Cook M. (eds.), Soil Conservation Extension - from Concepts to

Adoption, pp. 123-130, the Soil and Water Conservation Society of Thailand, Bangkok.

Brouwers J.H.A.M., 1993

Rural peopple's response to fertility decline; the Adja case (Benin). Thesis,, Wageningen Agricultural University,

Veenman, Wageningen.

Bweya L.A.C. &aamp; Mulenga N.J., 1993

Sustainable soil and water management in Malawi. In Hudson N. & Cheatle R.J. (eds.) Working with farmers for

better land husbandry, pp. 26-29, Intermediate Technology Publications, in association with the World Association of

Soil and Water Conservation.

Cheatle R.J., 19993

Introduction to the section of Participatory appraisal, planning and development. In Hudson N. & Cheatle R.J. (eds.),

Working with farmers for better land husbandry, pp. 85-87, Intermediate Technology Publications, in association with

the World Association of Soil and Water Conservation.

Chambers RR. 1993

Sustainable small farm development - Frontiers in participation. In Hudson N. & Cheatle R.J. (eds.), Working with

farmers for better land husbandry, pp. 96-101, Intermediate Technology Publications, in association with the World

Association of Soil and Water Conservation.

Chambers RR. 1993a

Participatory rural appraisal. In Hudson N. & Cheatle R.J. (eds.), Working with farmers for better land husbandry,

pp. 87-95, Intermediate Technology Publications, in association with the World Association of Soil and Water

Conservation.

Douglas M.G. 1993

Making Conservation Farmer-Friendly. In Hudson N. & Cheatle R.J. (eds.), Working with farmers for better land

husbandry, pp. 4-14, Intermediate Technology Publications, in association with the World Association of Soil and

Water Conservation.

Dudal R. 1981

An evaluation of conservation needs. In Morgan R.P.C. (ed.) 1981, Soil Conservation; Problems and Prospects,

p. 3‑12. Proceedings "Conservation 80", International Conference on Erosion and Conservation, Silsoe, 1980.

John Wiley.

Gappa H. 1993

Conservation in Bariadi. In Hudson N. & CheatleR.J. (eds.), WWorking with farmers for better land husbandry, pp.

159-162, Intermediate Technology Publications, in association with the World Association of Soil and Water

Conservation.

Gunatilake H.M. &p; Abeygunawardena P., 1993

An economic analysis of soil conservation in tobacco lands in the Hangkuranketha area of Sri Lanka. Indian JJournal

of Agricultural Economics, Vol.48, 1:106-112.

Hudson N.W., 1993

Preface. In Hudson N. & Cheatle R.J. (eds.), Working with farmers for better land husbandry, pp. 3-4, Intermediate

Technology Publications, in association with the World Association of Soil and Water Conservation.

Hudson N. & Cheatle R.J., eds. , 1993

Working with farmers for better land husbandry, Intermediate Technology Publications, in association with the World

Association of Soil and Water Conservation.

Hurni H., Cook M.G. & Samran Sombatpanit, 1996

Soil Conservation extension - a world perspective. In Samran Sombatpanit, Zöbisch M.A., Sanders D. & Cook M.

(eds.), Soil Conservation Extension - from Concepts to Adoption, pp.3-10, the Soil and Water Conservation

Society of Thailand, Bangkok.

Kiwanuka R., 1993<

Joint energy and environment projects (JEEP): Wood energy conservation by participatory activities. In Hudson N. &

Cheatle R.J. (eds.), Working with farmers for better land husbandry, pp. 172-174, Intermediate Technology

Publications, in association with the World Association of Soil and Water Conservation.

Lovejoy S..B., Lee T.G. & Basley D.B., 1986

Integration of physical and social analysis: the potential for micro targeting. In Lovejoy S.B. & Napier T.T. (eds.),

Conserving soil: insight from socio-economic research, pp. 121-129, Soil Conservation Society of America,

Ankeny, Iowa, USA.

Lutz E., Pagiola S. & Reiche C., 1994

The cost and benefits of soil conservation: the farmer's viewpoint, The World Bank Research Observer, Vol. 9, 2:

273-295, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.

Mohammed Y.A., 1993

Water harvesting in Darfur, Sudan. In Hudson N. & Cheatle R.J. (eds.), Working with farmers for better land

husbandry, pp. 169-172, Intermediate Technology Publications, in association with the World Association of Soil

and Water Conservation.

Shaxson T.F., 1997

Soil erosion and land husbandry, Land Husbandry, the International Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 2,

no. 1, pp. 1-14.

Shaxson T.F., Tiffen M., Wood A. & Turton C., 1997

Better land husbandry: re-thinking approaches to land improvement and the conservation of water and soil.

Natural Resources Perspectives, 19, June 1997.

Stocking M., 1988

Socio-economics of soil conservation in developing countries, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, pp.381-385.

Sutherlandd A.J., 1993

Integrating a socio-economic perspective into soil and water management in Zambia. In: Hudson N. & Cheatle R.J.

(eds.), Working with farmers for better land husbandry, pp. 64-68, Intermediate Technology Publications, in

association with the World Association of Soil and Water Conservation.

Tobisson E., 1993<

Changing roles for rural sociologists. In Hudson N. & Cheatle R.J. (eds.), Working with farmers for better land

husbandry, pp. 59-63, Intermediate Technology Publications, in association with the World Association of Soil and

Water Conservation.

Tukahirwa E.M. &p; Veit P., 1993

Community soil conservation in Kabale, Uganda. In Hudson N. & Cheatle R.J. (eds.), Working with farmers for

better land husbandry, pp. 162-165, Intermediate Technology Publications, in association with the World Association

of Soil and Water Conservation

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Source:

Bergsma E. 2000: Incentives of land users in projects of soil and water conservation, the weight of intangibles. GeoJournal, an International Journal on Human Geography and Environmental Sciences, Vol. 50, no. 1, p. 47-54.

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A recommended reference:

Bertus Haverkort, Katrien van 't Hooft and Wim Hiemstra (eds.) 2003:

Ancient Roots, New Shoots - Endogenous Development in Practice.

ETC/Compas, Leusden, The Netherlands; Zed Books, Londen.

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A Tucumanian soil speaks

Speak persons of my future,

and do they show concern

I do feel glad, but fear

nothing will change.

Meeting generations,

I know human nature.

In each, sincere men

make things work.

This way I am thinking,

while my B-horizon* grows,

becomes rich in clay

below my A**.

Experts come and go

discuss me and take samples,

I smile and see that some

understand me.

EB. Tucuman, 11/1997 (original in Spanish).

Made for a dinner at the end of a soil science study tour

in the region of the city of Tucuman,

Argentina, November 1997.

* B-horizon: here subsoil layer with relatively high content of clay, formed by slow processes.

** A, the topsoil layer, usually relatively rich in organic matter.

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Observations resulting from Ph.D. research

“The Kankanaey farmers have a tremendous stock of knowledge about their environment. Such knowledge could be an effective input in resource management, so it should be utilized and incorporated in project planning and decision-making related to the management of resources. This may also assure the success of the project.”

“The farmers’ understanding of soil fertility depletion should be considered in assessing and maintaining the productivity of the soil. Information on this could be used as a basis for planning or developing any project related to soil conservation, as well as in predicting the farmers’ conservation behaviour.”

Source: Maria Corazon Mendoza Lawas, 1997: The resource user’s knowledge, the neglected input in land resource management - the case of the Kankanaey farmers in Benguet, Philippines; Some general recommendations, p. 244. Ph.D. thesis. ITC Publication number 52. International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation, Enschede, The Netherlands.

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In the conclusions to his thesis, Bacic (2003) describes the present situation in his research area as follows:

“Although the professionals are becoming aware of the importance of participatory approaches related to extension service and rural research, there is still little effective participation by the supposed beneficiaries. Consultation is common, but participation and consultation is not the same thing. Top-down consultation by which people are asked to provide facts or opinions, usually about proposals drawn up by others, tends to disillusion the supposed beneficiaries and rarely reveals the full range of information available.

Source: Ivan Luiz Zilli Bacic, 2003: Demand-driven land evaluation, with case studies in Santa Catarina - Brazil. Section “Next steps in Santa Catarina”, p.124-125 in Conclusions of Ph.D.Thesis, Wageningen University.

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Afterword

Agricultural development cooperation requires change from both adviser and farmer

In the conditions of third world countries, failures of planning can be less easily compensated for by new investments than in richer parts of the world. The partial or complete collapse of projects and failure of policies, when they occur, are more apparent than in wealthier countries. The sad state of stagnation of development in many third world countries has at least the advantage that it shows clearly which plans succeed and which did not.

There is new urgency to make development cooperation succeed, before growing scepticism about its effectiveness reduces its political support and leaves it completely to military and economic strategy. Instead, development cooperation should be in essence the practical terrain where cultures meet and understanding and cooperation can be practised. It is an opportunity to give substance to that concept of “international community” that is often only called upon when aid is needed urgently.

Will enthusiasm in combination with professional expertise lead to projects that improve living conditions in the areas where at present human suffering seems to have no end in sight? Among the many bottlenecks towards this goal, two have been indicated in this brochure. They continue to beset this cooperative effort and have rarely received full attention. They are the limited view on social implications of technical measures, and the fact that the expert’s motivation and lifestyle have long been seen as inconsequential for technical results. But they appear to break or build a bridge of trust between advisers and farmers.

The articles presented here were based on the experience of many persons engaged in development cooperation. The spirit and spark that is alive in the experts and their counterparts, with a view to bringing about something valuable for conditions and people in a community, is surely a valuable, even essential, drive. It could become more realistic when plans are more completely integrated in the needs and customs of the people concerned, and when the experts subject their own motivation and life style to their own critical eye.

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Acknowledgements

Regarding the production:

The ITC, my former employer, the International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation, in Enschede, The Netherlands, for granting continuing administrative facilities and support.

Regarding the concept of the brochure and drafting of Foreword and Afterword:

Drs. I.J.J. Beerens, for sharing his experience obtained with development projects;

Mrs. C.M. Bergsma-Vinke, for her critical remarks and support;

My children Wiego and Annemarie for their helpful opinions;

Drs. W.A.M. Kooijman, for his comment on language and contents;

Mr. and Mrs. Ir. S.Visser, for their helpful study of the readability of certain parts;

Prof. Dr. A.C. Zinck, for his analytical observations and encouragement.

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Biographical sketch of author.

Eelko Bergsma was born in 1934, in Voorburg, the Netherlands, near the Hague. After the secondary school of Gymnasium β and a two year military service, he studied Soil Science at the Wageningen University, 1954-1961. In that period he was nine months in Morocco to study the change in coastal soils after reclamation. His first employment, 1961-1963, was with FAO,the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, as associate expert in a soil survey project in Sierra Leone. From 1964-1965 he was a team member of the staff of the newly founded Indian Photo-interpretation Institute in Dehra Dun, India. The institute was a joint venture of ITC, now called the International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation, and the Survey of India.

Back in the Netherlands from 1965, he was a lecturer in the Soil Science Division of ITC. He specialised in the field of erosion and soil conservation. Next to his course responsibilities he wrote more than 25 scientific papers.

With well-known international scientists as co-authors he wrote a reference work on soil erosion and conservation, for use in education, research and consulting. The book describes the factors of erosion hazard, explains 600 terms and has a glossary in four languages.

He developed a practical method to determine the influence of the soil profile on erosion hazard. He also was able to demonstrate that recognition of distinct microtopographic forms on the eroded soil surface allows determining the relative erosion intensity of a land use parcel. This has practical use for recommendations of soil conservation practices.

Next to soil conservation, his interest went to ways how development cooperation could be made more successful. His many periods of fieldwork, as part of students’ courses of ITC and research projects, took place in 19 countries of five continents. He concludes that this experience of working with counterparts in these countries during periods between 2 years and a few weeks, gave the occasion to apply and learn how the expert himself could be more effective in projects of development cooperation.

Though retired in 1999, he writes papers on soil conservation in cooperation with former colleagues. Of even greater importance, he feels, is the subject of motivation of people, north and south, and how to find the right ideas that should be pursued. In this respect, development cooperation is like a school, where one can learn much - the subject matter is also applicable in other fields of human enterprise.

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