World History – Mr. O’Donnell

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ROMAN MAGISTRATES

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CONSULS	2, elected annually from 509 B.C.	· first plebeian in 366 B.C. · [but, in the next 100 years, only 32 families provided 90 plebeian consuls
INTERREX	served only five days	· originally served during the time between the death of one king and the qualification of another · later appointed to conduct elections for consul or dictator
CONSULAR TRIBUNES	2, 3, 4, 6 elected for annual term	· first elected in 444 B.C., to meet plebeian demand to be included in chief magistracy, but without having to elect a plebeian to be consul; there were no consuls elected when Consular Tribunes were elected. · first plebeian elected in 422 (?) or 400 (?) [Livy]
CENSORS	2 elected, every five years from 443 B.C.	· first plebeian in 351 B.C. · 2 plebeians for the first time in 131 B.C.
PRAETORS	· #1 in 367 B.C. · #2 in 241	· first plebeian in 337 B.C.
CURULE AEDILES	2, elected every other year, from 367 B.C.	Two PLEBEIAN AEDILES were elected annually from among and by the plebeians, beginning (trad.) in 494 B.C.
QUAESTORS	· 2 originally · 4, from 421 · 8 from ca. 267 · 20 from 80 B.C.	.

TRIBUNI PLEBIS

· 2, originally; ultimately 10. · elected NOT by the People (Populus) but only by the Plebs, in the Concilium Plebis · elected for a one-year term · power confined to the City and outward to the First Milestone.

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ROMAN RELIGIOUS OFFICIALS

PONTIFEX MAXIMUS

first plebeian elected in 254 B.C.

PONTIFICES	first plebeians in 300 B.C. Originally two, ultimately 15.
AUGURES	first plebeians in 300 B.C.
XV VIRI SACRIS FACIUNDIS	first plebeians in 368 B.C.
SEPTEMVIRI EPULONUM	first plebeians in 300 B.C.

Rex Sacrorum	always a patrician
FLAMEN DIALIS	Priest of Jupiter. Always a patrician.
FLAMEN MARTIALIS	Priest of Mars. Always a patrician.
FLAMEN QUIRINALIS	Priest of Quirinus-Romulus. Always a patrician.
Flamen Volcanalis	Priest of Vulcan. Always a patrician.
Flamen Volturnalis	Priest of Volturnus (Etruscan). Always a patrician.
Flamen Palatualis	Always a patrician.
Flamen Furrinalis	Always a patrician.
Flamen Floralis	Always a patrician.
Flamen Carmentalis	Always a patrician.
Flamen Cerialis	Always a patrician.
Flamen Falacer	Always a patrician.
Flamen Pomonalis	Always a patrician.

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04/20/2001

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Magistrates of 54, 53 and 52 B.C.

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54	Consuls: -L.Domitius Ahenobarbus -Appius Claudius Pulcher	Praetors: -?Marcus Claudius Marcellus (cos. 51) -?C.Cosconius -?Domitius (de vi) -?Fonteius (urbanus) -M. Porcius Cato (de repetundis) -P. Servilius Isauricus (cos. 48, 41) -Ser. Sulpicius Galba -L. Aelius Tubero -M. Aurelius Cotta -M. Considius Nonianus -C. Fannius
53	Consuls: -Cn. Domitius Calvinus -M. Valerius Messalla Rufus (entered office in July!)	Praetors: -L. Aemilius Lepidus -?P. Attius Varus -?C. Claudius Marcellus -Q. Minucius Thermus
	Tribuni Plebis: -M. Coelius Vinicianus -C. Lucilius Hirrus -P. Licinius Crassus Dives Iunianus
	Augurs: -M. Tullius Cicero (cos 63), in succession to M. Licinius Crassus Dives or his son P> Crassus (who died on campaign in Parthia on June 9).
52	Consuls: -Cn. Pompeius Magnus (from 24 Intercal.) -Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica (from July)	Praetors: -C. Tremellius Scrofa -?M. Nonius Sufenas -?P. Silius
	Tribuni Plebis: -M. Caelius Rufus (pr. 48) -Q. Pompeius Rufus -Manlius Cumanus -T. Munatius Plancus -C. Sallustius Crispus (pr. 46)
	Provincial Governors: -Cn. Pompeius Magnus (both Spains) -C. Iulius Caesar (Gauls and Illyricum) -Appius Claudius Pulcher (censor of 50: Cilicia) -C. Cassius Longinus (Proquaestor of Syria) -?P. Attius Varus (Africa) -Q. Minucius Thermus (Propraetor in Asia) -P. Lentulus Spinther (end of his term in Cilicia, 56-53)

CHRONOLOGICAL NOTES, 59-43 B.C.

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· 59 C. IULIUS CAESAR & M. CALPURNIUS BIBULUS

L. Vatinius was tribune of the plebs working for Caesar
Caesar named governor of Gauls and Illyricum for 5 years

· 58 L. CALPURNIUS PISO & AULUS GABINIUS
Piso was Caesar's new father-in-law, Gabinius was Pompey's ex-chief-of-staff

CLODIUS was tribune of the plebs: exile of Cicero (March ?)

· 57 P. CORNELIUS LENTULUS SPINTHER & Q. CAECILIUS METELLUS NEPOS
Metellus was Pompey's ex-brother-in-law
Pompey named Grain Commissioner pro consule for 5 years, and on April 5 was authorized to spend 40,000,000 HS
Return of Cicero (July SC; Aug.4 law by people; return Sept. 4)

· 56 CNAEUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS MARCELLINUS & L. MARCIUS PHILIPPUS Clodius was aedile: February: prosecuted Milo de vi (who was supported by Pompey)
April: `Conference at Luca' Caesar with Pompey and Crassus (First Triumvirate)
Trial of M. CAELIUS Rufus de vi (Cicero for the defense, April 4)
Lentulus supported the optimates, and opposed the candidacy of Pompey and Crassus for consuls for 55.

· 55 Interregnum during part of January.
CN. POMPEIUS MAGNUS & M. LICINIUS CRASSUS

Pompey granted command of Spain for 5 years, Crassus of Syria for 5 years.
MILO praetor. Crassus left for Syria in November.

· 54 LUCIUS DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS & APPIUS CLAUDIUS PULCHER
M. Porcius CATO praetor de repetundis (trials of Scaurus and of Gabinius)
Julia, daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died in childbirth.

· 53 Interregnum from January 1 to July
CNAEUS DOMITIUS CALVINUS & MARCUS VALERIUS MESSALLA RUFUS
Crassus and his son died (June 9) at Carrhae in Mesopotamia.

· 52 Interregnum from January 1, until V. a.d. Kal Mart (Day 76/77 of year)
CNAEUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS SOLE CONSUL until July
Q. CAECILIUS METELLUS PIUS SCIPIO NASICA, from July (Metellus was Pompey's brand new father-in-law)

January 18: MURDER OF CLODIUS BY MILO
APRIL 7 CICERO'S DEFENSE SPEECH (trial: April 4-7. Verdict: April 8)

· 51 SERVIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS & MARCUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS
Marcellus was strongly anti-Caesarian
Cicero given imperium to govern Cilicia

· 50 LUCIUS AEMILIUS LEPIDUS PAULLUS & CAIUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS
Paullus tended to support Caesar, Marcellus was adamantly opposed to him.
Marcus CAELIUS Rufus curule aedile
Caius Scribonius CURIO tribunus plebis: accepted a huge bribe to support Caesar
Cicero departed from Cilicia (July), and reached Rome (Jan. 4 49)

· 49 CAIUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS & LUCIUS CORNELIUS LENTULUS CRUS
Both consuls were anti-Caesarian
MARCUS ANTONIUS tribunus plebs: fled Rome on January 7 when the Senatus Consultum Ultimum (martial law) was passed against him.

January: CAESAR crossed the Rubicon (Jan. 10/11). Pompey and the consuls left Rome on the 17th. The CIVIL WAR had begun.

· 49,

Jan. 7 Crossing of the Rubicon: The Civil War Begins
Caesar DICTATOR I

· 48 CAESAR CONSUL II and DICTATOR II (into 47)

Battle of PHARSALUS (Thessaly) August 9 (actually 6 June): Defeat of Pompeians

· 48/7

Alexandria (Egypt) Caesar and Cleopatra (Caesarion)

· 47 Caesar DICTATOR

Battle of ZELA (Pontus: now central Turkey) "Veni, vidi, vici."
Returned to Italy in September
Debt measures

· 46 CAESAR CONSUL III; LEPIDUS

Battle of Thapsus (Africa: Tunisia) Suicide of Cato at Utica

Four TRIUMPHS in Rome: Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, Africa
DICTATOR III (for a ten year term! Probably in April)
Caesar named Curator of Morals for the State
Dedication of the Forum of Caesar and the Temple of Venus Genetrix
The Year 46 had 15 months because of Caesar's revision of the calendar

· 45 CAESAR CONSUL IV

(without a colleague! Abdicated ca. October 1)
DICTATOR IV (April, no break after Dict III)
Battle of MUNDA (Spain) death of one of Pompey's sons
TRIUMPH Spain October 13
The new consul (from October 1) Quintus Fabius Maximus, died suddenly on December 31.

· 44 CAESAR CONSUL V MARCUS ANTONIUS

Caesar still DICTATOR IV, but named DICTATOR PERPETUUS (between January 26 and February 15)

March 15 ASSASSINATION OF CAESAR

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· 43, August 19 YOUNG CAESAR (the future Augustus) named CONSUL [age 19]

Return to the Greek and Roman History List.

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The Fall of the Roman Empire:

Some (Sometimes Silly) Explanations

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[Strategy and Tactics Magazine #39 (1973), p. 21 (characterizations added)]

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· PLAGUES reduced the population, and the fertility of the survivors. [Medical archaeology]

· LEAD PIPES and utensils poisoned the aristocracy, lowering their birth-rate and intelligence level of this most important class (S. Colum Gilfillan) [Eugenics]

· The admission of INFERIOR RACES to the citizenship lowered the vigor of the Pure Roman Stock. [Racism]

· CHRISTIANITY made people less concerned with this world. (Edward Gibbon) [Religious Bigotry, Enlightenment]

· Augustus’ jury-rigged apparatus of state was unable to cope with certain types of crisis. [Systems Analysis]

· CIVIL WARS sapped the strength of the Empire. [The Military Theory]

· The People praciticed BIRTH CONTROL without restraint, thus causing a loss of population. [Medical/Religious]

· Failure to establish a workable CONSTITUTION. [Legal/Systems Analysis]

· ‘Bread and Circuses’: the people became LAZY. [The Welfare Argument]

· The ARMY got out of hand due to lowering of standards of discipline [Military Theory, Part II; moral] God turned his favor from Rome because of its sins [Religious Explanation, Old Testament, St. Augustine; Moral]

· The State collapsed under the weight of its bureaucracy. [Systems Analysis]

· The BARBARIANS became civilized enough to contend with the Romans on an equal footing. [Racism]

· Abandonment of the old religion, which had given moral strength to the Roman People [Religious] Widespread HOMOSEXUALITY among the upper classes led to a decline in the birth rate among aristocrats, thereby reducing the available pool of leadership manpower. [Sexism, Aristocratic Political View of Eugenics]

· ORGIES and VENEREAL DISEASE and other entertainments sapped the vigor of the Roman People. [Moral, Medical, Welfare Argument]

· LIBERAL-THINKING EMPERORS attempted to spend too much on the poor in their efforts to lift them up, thus draining the financial resources of the Empire [Political-Republican; Financial]

· The flow of gold to the Orient to pay for luxury goods eventually dealt a death blow to the Roman economy. [Economic]

· The existence of slavery and an impoverished citizen mass created a large internal proletariat which would eventually prove disloyal to the empire [Marxism].

· The Aristocracy permitted too many of the lower classes to participate in affairs of state, thereby diluting the value of experience and brains which the Aristocracy possessed. [Eugenics: pro-Aristocratic]

· As the State became more despotic, the average citizen, and even members of the Upper Classes, became less interested in it, thereby causing a LOSS OF CONFIDENCE and support. [Psychological Argument, Aristocratic subspecies]

· Abandonment of the old, good Roman institutions and virtues which had helped to bring Rome to greatness [Fear of Change; Moral]

· Too many of the old institutions were left with a measure of power, which tended to disrupt the machinery of Empire [Progress vs. Obstructionism]

· Easy living made the Romans soft, permitting the Barbarians to overrun them with ease. [Moral, Racism]

· Slavery impoverished the Citizenry. [Economic, Class-based]

· The bulk of the inhabitants of the Empire failed to share in the incredible prosperity, remaining impoverished and restive. [anti-trickle-down Economics; Marxist?]

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Reading:

· -Michael Grant, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A Reappraisal (1976)

· -Mortimer Chambers (ed.), The Fall of Rome: Can it be explained? (NY: Holt, Reinhart Winston 1963).

· -Donald Kagan (ed.), The End of the Roman Empire: Decline or Transformation? 2nd ed. (D. C. Heath 1978).

· -Ramsay MacMullen, Corruption and the Decline of Rome (New Haven: Yale 1988).

· -Ramsay MacMullen, Roman Government’s Response to Crisis, A.D. 235-337 (New Haven: Yale, 1976).

· -Alexander von Demandt, Der Fall Roms. Die Auflösung des römischen Reiches im Urteil der Nachwelt (Munich 1984).

· -A.H.M. Jones, The Decline of the Ancient World (London 1966).

· -Walter Kaegi, Byzantium and the Decline of Rome (Princeton 1968).

· -Arther Ferrill, The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation (London: Thames & Hudson 1986).

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Return to the Greek and Roman History List.

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BUILDING PROJECTS IN ROME IN AUGUSTUS' TIME

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38	Hut of Romulus on the Palatine burnt (rebuilding)
36	Triumph: Cn. Domitius Calvinus rebuilds the Regia in the Forum Nov. 13: Ovatio of Octavian over Sextus Pompeius: gilded columna rostrata in the Forum Palatine: Consecration of the site of the Temple of Apollo [dedication on October 9, 28] The People resolve to build a house for Octavian.
35	House and Gardens of Maecenas on the Esquiline
34	Triumph: T. Statilius Taurus (June 30): theater in the Campus Martius (dedicated in 30 B.C.) After July 1: Paullus Aemilius Lepidus dedicates the Basilica Aemilia (work in progress since 55) Triumph: C. Sosius, an Antonian (September 3): a shrine of Apollo
33	Marcus Agrippa is Aedile: repair of buildings, sewers and streets (Re)building of aqueducts: Aquae Julia, Anio Vetus, Appia, Marcia fountains dolphins placed on the Spina in the Circus Maximus Octavian: the Porticus Octavia in the Campus Martius (from the spoils of the Dalmatian War) Triumph: L. Marcius Philippus (April 26): Temple of Heracles Musarum in the Campus Martius, with its Portico Triumph: L. Cornificius (December 3): Temple of Diana on the Aventine
32	Flood: The Pons Sublicius is washed away. Octavian: rebuilds the Temple of Jupiter Feretrius on the Capitoline.
31	Fire: The Circus Maximus, Temple of Ceres, Libera and Libera, and the Temple of Spes are destroyed (Dio 50. 10.3)
30	Octavian (after Actium): decrees for a triumphal arch in the Forum; the adornment of the Temple of Divus Iulius with rostra Statilius Taurus: Dedication of his theater
29	Octavian: August 13: Triple Triumph: Dalmatia, Actium, Egypt Dedication of the Curia Julia August 18: Dedication of the Temple of Divus Julius.
28	Octavian: restoration of 82 temples in the City beginning of the erection of the Mausoleum Augusti October 9: dedication of the Temple of Apollo games in honor of Actium in a temporary wooden stadium (Dio 53. 1.4) Triumph: May 26: C. Calvisius Sabinus, who rebuilds the Via Latina.
27	January 13: Restoration of the Republic January 16: honors voted to Augustus, and decoration of his house Restoration of the Via Flaminia, from Rome to Rimini (from the manubiae of the triumphs of 29)
26	Agrippa; dedication of teh Saepta Julia in the Campus Martius
25	Agrippa: completes the Porticus Argonautarum, the Laconicum Sudatorium, the Pantheon (and possibly the Temple of Bonus Eventus) in the Campus Martius
23	Flood Marcellus, Augustus' nephew, provides awnings for the Forum (he dies and is the first to be buried in the Mausoleum Augusti) Octavia: his mother builds a library in memory of Marcellus in the Porticus Octaviae Augustus: resumes work on the Theater of Marcellus (dedicated in 11)
22	September 1: Augustus: dedication of the Temple of Jupiter Tonans on the Capitol (vowed during the Cantabrian Expedition in 26)
21	Lepidus and Lollius (the consuls) restore the Pons Fabricia, destroyed in the flood of 23. Also the Horrea Lolliana and the Horti Lolliani (?)
20	Augustus: obtains a decree for a Temple of Mars Ultor on the Capitol, a repository for the Parthian Standards until the completion of his Forum Augustum The erection of the Aureum Milliarium in the Forum Romanum
19	Triumph: L. Cornelius Balbus: the Theater of Balbus, the Crypta Balbi in the Campus Martius (dedicated in 13)
17	May 31-June3 LUDI SAECULARES in the Campus Martius: an Altar of Dis and Proserpina. The Theater of Marcellus is used for shows (which last two weeks beyond the official ceremonies)
16	Augustus: rebuilding of the Via Appia and the Via Salaria, ex senatu consulto Dedication of the Temple of Quirinius on the Quirinal
15	Vedius Pollio (d. 15) left Augustus most of his estate, for the purposes of public building: Porticus Liviae (dedicated 7 B.C.)
14	Fire Basilica Aemilia burned. Flames reached the Temple of Vesta (which had to be restored)
13	Ara Pacis: decree authorizing its foundation passed (July 4) Balbus: dedication of the Theatrum Balbi in Campo
12	Augustus: named Pontifex Maximus. He made part of his residence public property, while the Domus Publica was assigned to the Vestal Virgins; a shrine of Vesta was established on the Palatine (April 28) Agrippa died late in March: he left his gardens and Bath to the People of Rome Fire The hut of Romulus burned The Pyramid of Cestius completed before the death of Agrippa The Pons Aemilius rebuilt by Augustus (between 12 and 2) including an arch
11	Augustus: dedication of the Theater of Marcellus statues of salus Publica, Concordia, Pax
10	Augustus: altar and shrine to Mercury on the Esquiline (New Year's gifts) Obelisks: horologium, Circus Maximus
9	Augustus: January 30: Dedication of Ara Pacis Augustae Altar of Vulcan (erected from New Year's gifts) Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol damaged by lightning Lex de Aqueductibus passed on May 31 Senate decrees an arch for Drusus on the Via Appia
8	Augustus: the Census, extension of the Pomoerium, division of the City into fourteen Regiones (maybe done in 7), delimitation of the banks of the Tiber Deaths of Maecenas and of Horace (who was buried extremis Esquilinis
7	January 1: Triumph of Tiberius (cos II) Temple of Concordia opened (begun in 10) Fire destroyed the Temple of Castor and many other buildings in the Forum area (Dio 55. 8.5)
6	Temple of Castor repaired and dedicated by Tiberius
2	February 5: Augustus named Pater Patriae August 1: Dedication of The Forum Augustum and the Temple of Mars Ultor The Julia Scandal
A.D. 5/9	Altar to the Numen Augusti dedicated by Tiberius Caesar
A.D. 6	Aedes Castoris et Pollucis dedicated
A.D. 7	August 10: Altar of Ops and Ceres in the Vicus Jugarius founded
A.D. 10	Aedes Concordiae Augustae in the Forum dedicated
A.D. 13	Signum Iustitiae Augustae dedicated
A.D. 14	August 19: Death of Augustus September 17: Divine honors granted to Augustus by Decree of the Senate Inscribing and posting of the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, last edited in A. D. 13

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Plans and drawings

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   Roman history begins in a small village in central Italy; this unassuming village would grow into a small metropolis, conquer and control all of Italy, southern Europe, the Middle East, and Egypt, and find itself, by the start of AD time, the most powerful and largest empire in the world. They managed what no other people had managed before: the ruled the entire world under a single administration for a considerable amount of time. This imperial rule, which extended from Great Britain to Egypt, from Spain to Mesopotamia, was a period of remarkable peace. The Romans would look to their empire as the instrument that brought law and justice to the rest of the world; in some sense, the relative peace and stability they brought to the world did support this view.

   They were, however, a military state, and they ruled over this vast territory by maintaining a strong military presence in subject countries. An immensely practical people, the Romans devoted much of their brilliance to military strategy and technology, administration, and law, all in support of the vast world government that they built.

Rome, however, was responsible for more than just military and administrative genius. Culturally, the Romans had a slight inferiority complex in regards to the Greeks, who had begun their city-states only a few centuries before the rise of the Roman republic. The Romans, however, derived much of their culture from the Greeks: art, architecture, philosophy, and even religion. However, the Romans changed much of this culture, adapting it to their own particular world view and practical needs. It is this changed Greek culture, which we call Graeco-Roman culture, that was handed down to the European civilizations in late antiquity and the Renaissance.

   Our journey through this remarkable history begins with the land itself and the various peoples that inhabited it. Unlike most of the regions we've dealt with, Italy was a multicultural landscape that came to be dominated by this small village, Rome. Each chapter in this history is followed by the title of the next chapter; you can proceed from chapter to chapter in this history by clicking the title that concludes each chapter. Alternatively, you can use the navigation menus in the frames to the left to go back to the contents page and navigate the chapters as you please.

Richard Hooker