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European civil society is changing quickly in three ways:
1-Diversification: concerning labour and social relations the traditional role of the unions as the exclusive representatives of social welfare vis-à-vis individual governments and European institutions is now showing signs of wear.
On the one hand, a multitude of NGOs, associations, networks, and pressure groups have sprung up and become organised on a European scale. On the other hand, due to the pressure of the unemployed, and those without rights (no papers, housing, etc.), new forms of social expression are appearing in different countries, particularly in France and Germany.
2-Political cohesion: although most of the players mentioned above progressed in no particular order up to 1992, the date of the Maastricht Treaty negotiations, most of them have succeeded in recent years in rallying, though not without conserving their differences, around two major interactive goals: the strengthening of democracy in Europe, and the protective transformation of our social foundations. Thus many organisations promote the emergence of European citizenship, both civic and social, independently from the criteria of nationality. Furthermore, a number of players who could be called "critical pro-Europeans" are asserting themselves increasingly, quite prepared to disagree with their governments about European policy without fear of being accused of Euro-scepticism.
3-Transnationalisation: when it exists at all most discussion on Europe occurs within national frameworks. However, by making use of their transnational networks, the players in civil society are working progressively to create a European public arena, the essential condition for the emergence of a political one. These transnational networks are either still too weak, or over-centralised; they also suffer from their incapacity to reach the majority of young people or a wider public. For all that, their development is positive.
Why European civil society?
The starting point for the project is the finding of our working group that within the broad literature on the European democratic deficit - or positively, on Euro-democracy - the issue of 'civil society' is underdeveloped. Therefore, we propose to address the question what civil society could mean within the European polity, and whether it could contribute to democratisation. The project should provide both theoretical clarification on the concept of a 'European civil society', and contributions dealing with elements that can be seen as signs of such a European civil society.
The project does not start from a pre-established definition of civil society. Our starting point is the grey zone (of intermediate bodies) which provides an intermediating function between the citizen (or groups of citizens) and the European institutions.
Three different focuses are possible. The first approach is to focus on the intermediate bodies that are de facto acting within the European polity, and to place this phenomenon within the context of Euro-democracy. The second approach is a more institutional one. It looks how the European institutions react to or structure the intermediation of civil society in the light of Euro-democracy. The third approach focuses on the bottom of the process. It addresses the relation between civil society and the increased participation of citizens within policy-making. These approaches should be embedded within more general analysis of the particular relation between civil society, democracy, democratisation and the sui generis character of the European polity. Finally, one cannot talk about 'European civil society' and EU-democracy without taking into account the enlargement issue.
Global Civil Society: Changing the World?
Jan Aart Scholte
Is, as many of its enthusiastic proponents suggest, global civil society the key to future progressive politics? This paper first develops a definition of global civil society and explores the circumstances that have prompted its growth. The paper then considers the consequences of global civil society, particularly in relation to matters of sovereignty, identity, citizenship and democracy. The latter part of the paper proceeds to outline criteria for evaluating global civil society, identifying seven areas of promise and four possible dangers. The conclusion offers several suggestions that could help to maximise the benefits and minimise the pitfalls of global civil society.