The New Testament, like any other literature, is easier to understand and more interesting when it is seen in its historical context. For a still better picture of the age in which the books of the New Testament were written, it is necessary to step back a bit and review important events in Jewish history leading up to that period. The social, political, and religious conditions in Judea at the time of Christianity's birth are of great significance in understanding the direction which that religion took.
The sects or parties prevalent in Judea at the dawn of Christianity had an impact on early Christians, as well as on Jews. The names-Sadducees, Pharisees, Zealots--are mentioned throughout the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles. The Sanhedrin occupies a significant place in the recounting of Yeshua's trial as does the Roman procurator, Pontius Pilate. No study of the New Testament is complete without an awareness of the character and influence of Paul, the great proselytizer, if not founder, of Christianity. Paul’s role was pivotal in transforming Nazarene Judaism into Gentile Christianity.
It is hoped that this short presentation about the important people, parties, and institutions during the life of Yeshua and the period in which the New Testament was composed will add to a better understanding and evaluation of the events recounted in Christian Scriptures.
Let us turn back now to a brief historical review of Jews in their own land in order to gain a clearer perspective of the stage on which events were enacted during the time of Yeshua and Paul, the writing of the New Testament, and the development of Christianity. The historical summary also throws some light on the forces influencing most Jews who clung tenaciously to their land and faith.
After the destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem and the fall of Judea in 586 B.C.E. many Jews, especially the Jewish leadership and aristocracy in Jerusalem, were sent into exile in Babylonia. Less than fifty years later in 538, the Babylonian Empire fell to Cyrus the Great of Persia. Cyrus was a benign monarch who allowed and encouraged the Jews to return to Judah and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. Many welcomed his offer. They returned to their former capital, built a modest Temple, and enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy. Despite some conflicts with the Samaritans, the Jews lived in peace and enjoyed religious freedom. Samaritans were people of diverse origins. They were a mixture of Israelites with people from Central Asia who were settled in Samaria by Sargon after the fall of the Northern Kingdom in 721 B.C.E. The Northern Kingdom was called Israel and contained ten tribes. They were sent into exile by Sargon of Assyria. The Southern Kingdom was called Judah or Judea and included the tribes of Judah and Benjamin. Transfer of populations was common in ancient times. The Samaritans worshipped God and also practiced idolatry. The Jews (Judeans), returning from exile, rejected the Samaritans' offer to help rebuild the Temple. They sensed that their survival depended on the preservation of their religion free from corrupting elements. The Samaritans, thereupon, became the inveterate foes of the Jews using every unscrupulous method to prevent them from rebuilding their Temple, constructing protective walls around Jerusalem, and establishing themselves in Judea. They told slanderous lies to the Persians in order to prevent or delay construction of the Temple. By 516 B.C.E., despite Samaritan opposition, the Second Temple was completed.
The Persian Empire extended from India to Ethiopia, as stated in the first chapter of the Book of Esther. Some Jews fared well under the Persians and rose to positions of influence. This too is corroborated in Esther even though details of the story are considered literary embellishments by most scholars.
In the ensuing two centuries, Persian imperial power decayed and declined. The independent city-states of Greece were conquered and united by Philip II of Macedon and his son, Alexander. As Alexander rose to power and endeavored to unite the Greek states of Europe and Asia, he met the Persians in combat and overcame them. After two centuries of ascendancy the Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great of Macedon in 332 B.C.E. The Greeks now ruled all of the known world. Greek civilization or Hellenism spread throughout Europe and the ancient Near Eastern centers of civilization in Asia and North Africa. In 323 Alexander died and his empire was divided among three generals. While Alexander had been friendly to Jews, his successors were not consistently so. Under the Greeks Jews encountered more difficulty and strife than they had under Persian rule. In the Middle East one of Alexander's generals, Ptolemy, received Egypt and another general, Seleucus, acquired Syria. In 310 Ptolemy I declared himself king of Egypt and Judea. The latter included at various times not only the land area of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin but also Samaria, Galilee, and Trans-Jordan. The country was tranquil for the most part under the Ptolemaic hegemony although there were periodic battles on its territory between the Ptolemics and the Scleucids.
In 198 B.C.E. the Syrian Greeks wrested Judea from the Egyptian Greeks. Judea continued at peace for the next thirty years until Antiochus IV ascended the Syrian throne in 168. He attempted to impose his repressive rule on the Jews and to forbid their practice of Judaism. Revolt ensued under the leadership of Mattathias, a priest of Modi'in, a town northwest of Jerusalem. His five sons, Judah, John, Eliezer, Jonathan, and Simon, were known as the Maccabees. The war which the Maccabees fought under the successive command of the various brothers lasted from 168 to 134. It ended with the final liberation of Judea. The country had a measure of independence under the Hasmoneans, the name of the successors of the Maccabees. The Hasmoneans were priest-kings. That is, they ruled as kings and came from the priestly class. The members of the families were regarded as heroes because they had liberated the land from Greek domination. Although their family was not descended from that branch of the priesthood from which the High Priest came, the Maccabees' claim to that role was accepted by the people in light of their leadership role in the wars for religious freedom.
This did not preclude differences with certain elements in the population, especially among the Pharisees, who wished an earlier end to the warfare. The Hasmoneans had nationalistic goals to expand Jewish dominance to the areas that had been part of the kingdom when David and Solomon reigned. The opponents of this view were satisfied to end the state of war as long as the Temple was secured and religious freedom assured.
The Maccabean-Hasmonean dynasty lasted for over one hundred years. During that time Rome replaced Greece as the greatest power in the world. The Romans did, however, adsorb and assimilate Hellenism. Greek culture, if not Greek political power, prevailed throughout the Roman Empire. Judea lost its independence in the year 63 B.C.E. with the rivalry of two brothers for the throne: Aristobolus and Hyrcanus. They both appealed to Rome for help and that power played one against the other and finally moved into the breach. Pompey entered Jerusalem with his army. While a Hasmonean sat on the throne for the next two and-a-half decades, there was continuous encroachment by the Romans. The situation deteriorated as Judea lost its independence and Rome became more oppressive.
In 47 B.C.E. Antipater, ruler of Edom (Idumea), became procurator of Judea through political intrigue with the Romans. His son, Herod, continued the crafty maneuvering of his father. He became governor of Galilee. In that position he crushed a revolt of the Jews against Rome which was led by Hezekiah the Zealot. Shortly thereafter, in 40 B.C.E., Herod went to Rome for backing, having already demonstrated his loyalty to that government. The Romans then proclaimed him king of Judea. Herod killed Antigonus, the Hasmonean ruler, thus ending the dynasty. He undermined the Sanhedrin and the internal organization of the Jewish community. He brought the kingdom of Judea into the Roman Hellenistic orbit. The Jews hated him for Hellenizing their country, for subverting their institutions, and for his wanton brutality. He murdered his Hasmonean wife, Mariamne, and their sons in a psychotic rage. His reign lasted from 37 to 4 B.C.E. Toward the end of his rule a Jewish baby was born in Nazareth, and given the name of Joshua. Years later he became known by the Greek translation of his name, Jesus.