Chapter 13: European Middle Ages, 500-1200

Group 1

W. Johnson

Section 1:Germanic Kingdoms Unite Under Charlemagne

1. Germanic Peoples Adopt Christianity

Politics played a key role in spreading Christianity. By 600, the Church, with the help of Frankish rulers, had converted many Germanic peoples who had settled in Rome's former lands. Missionaries also succeeded in spreading the religion, often risking their lives to do so. In southern Europe, the fear of Muslim attacks spurred many people to become Christians. To adapt to rural conditions, the Church built monastaries. There, Christian men called monks gave up all their private possessions and became servants of God. Nuns, women who also followed this way of life, lived in convents. Around 520, Benedict, an Italian monk began writing a book describing a strict, but practical set of rules for monastaries. His sister Scholastica, who headed a convent, adapted these rules for women. Monks and nuns devoted their lives to prayers and good works. Monastaries became Europe's best educated communities. Monks opened schools, maintained libraries and copied books. In 731, an English monk named Venerable Bede wrote a history of England which scholars still consider the best historical work of the early Middle Ages. In 590, Gregory I, also called Gregory the Great, became pope. As head of the Church in Rome, he broadened the authority of the papacy, or pope's office, beyond its spiritual role. Under Groegory, the papacy became a secular, or worldly, power involved in politics. The pope's palace became the center of Rome's government. Gregory used Church revenues to raise armies, repair roads, and help the poor. He strengthened the vision of Christiandom. It was a spiritual kingdom that spread out from Rome to the most distant churches. From Italy to England, from Spain to western Germany.

2. Charlemagne Takes Center Stage

Charlemagne built an empire greater than any known since ancient Rome. Each summer he led his armies against surrounding enemies. Through his conquests, he spread Christianity. He reunited western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire and by 800, the Carolingian Empire exceeded that of the Byzantine. Charlemagne had become the most powerful king in western Europe. In 800, he and his army traveled to Rome to crush a mob that had attacked the pope, in gratitude, Pope Leo III crowned him emperor. This event was historic, it signaled the joining of Germanic power, the Church, and the heritage of the Roman Empire. Charlemagne strengthened his power by limiting that of the nobles. To govern his empire, he sent out royal agents who made sure that powerful landholders called counts governed their counties justly. He also regularly visited every part of his kingdom, judging cases, settling disputes, and rewarding faithful followers. He also kept a close watch on the management of his huge estates which were the source of Carolingian wealth and power. One of his greatest accomplishment was the encouragement of learning. A year before Charlemagne's death in 814, he crowned his only living son, Louis the Pious as emperor. He was a deeply religious man, but an ineffective ruler. His three sons, Lothair, Charles the Bald, and Louis the German fought for the empire after his death. The Treaty of Verdun ended the civil war in 843. This pact split the empire in three parts and after this the Carolingian kings lost power. As central authority broke down, the lack of strong rulers led to a new system of governing and landholding.

Section 2: Feudalism in Europe by D.Wade

3. New Invasions Trouble Western Europe

After the Treaty of Verdun, Charlemagne's three feuding grandsons broke up the kingdom even further. The political turmoil and constant warfare led to the rise of feudalism- a military and political system based on land ownership and personal loyalty. Between 800 and 1000, invasions destroyed the Carolingian Empire. Muslims invaded Sicily and Italy, sacking Rome in 846. Magyars struck from the east, terrorizing Germany and Italy. And from the north sailed the most dreaded attackers of all-the Vikings.

Vikings: Raiders, Traders and Explorers: The Vikings set sail from Scandinavia. They were a Germanic people also called Northmen or Norsemen. They worshiped warlike gods and took pride in nicknames like Eric Bloodaxe and Thorfinn Skullsplitter. The Vikings carried out their raids with terrifying speed. By the time local troops arrived, the Vikings were gone. Their warships were awesome, the largest carrying 300 warriors, who took turns rowing the ship's 72 oars. A ship might weigh 20 tons, fully loaded, but still able to sail in 3 feet of water. This enabled them to loot inland villages. The Vikings werent only warriors, but also traders, farmers and outstanding explorers. They journeyed down rivers into the heart of Russia, to Constantinople and even across the North Atlantic Ocean. A Viking explore named Leif Ericson most likely reached North America around 1000, nearly 500 years before Columbus. About the same time Ericson reached America, Viking terror in Europe faded. As Vikings gradually accepted Christianity, they stopped raiding monastaries. Also, a warming trend in the climate made farming in Scandinavia easier. As Scandinavian agricultural settlements prospered, fewer Scandinavians adopted the seafaring life of Viking warriors.

Magyars and Muslims: As Viking invasions declined, Europe became the target of new assaults. The Magyars, a nomadic people and superb horseriders, attacked from the east. They swept across the Danube River plains and invaded western Europe in the late 800s. The Magyars didnt settle conquered lands, but captured people to sell as slaves. They attacked isolated villages and monastaries. They overran Italy and reached as far west as hte Rhineland and Burgundy. The Muslims stuck from the south. From there, they controlled the Mediterranean and disrupted trade. From 600 to 700, they tried to conquer and settle in Europe, by the 800s and 900s, their goal was also to plunder. The Muslims were excellent sailors, attacking settlements on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts, and as far inland as Switzerland. The invasions of the Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims caused widespread disorder and suffering. Many western Europeans, living in constant danger, no longer looked to a central ruler for security, but to local rulers with their own armies. Leaders who could fight the invaders attracted followers and gained political strength.

4. Feudalism Structures Society

In 911, two former enemies faced each other in a peace ceremony. Rollo was the head of a Viking army, he had plundered the rich Seine River valley for years. Charles the Simple was the French king, but held little power. Rollo recieved a huge piece of French territory, which became known as Northmen's land, or Normandy. In return, Rollo swore a pledge of loyalty.

A New Social Order: The worst years of the invaders' attacks spanned from 850 to 950. During this time, many rulers and warriors like Charles and Rollo made similar agreements in parts of Europe. The system of governing and landowning called feudalism emerged. A similar feudal system had existd in China under the Zhou Dynasty from the 11th century BC until 256 BC. Feudalism in Japan began in AD 1192 and ended in the 19th century. The feudal system was based on mutual obligations. In exchange for military protection and other services, a lord, or landowner, granted land called a fief. The person recieving the fief was called a vassal. Feudalism depended on the control of land.

The Feudal Pyramid: Envision a pyramid as the structure of feudal society. At the peak is the king. Next came the powerful vassal, wealthy landowners such as noble and bishops. Below them were the knights, mounted warriors who protect their lords' lands un exchange for fiefs. At the base of the pyramid are the landless peasants who toil in the fields. The feudal relationships were not this clear-cut, often becoming a complex tangle of conflicting loyalties. Bith lords and vassals tried to use these relationships to their own advantages.

Social Classes are Well Defined: In the feudal system, status determined prestige and power. Medival writers classified people into three groups: those who fought (nobles and knights), those who prayed(men and women of the Church) and those who worked (the peasants). Social classes were usually inherited. The vast majority of people were peasants. Most peasants were serfs, people who could not lawfully leave their birthplace. Though bound to the land, serfs were not slaves, their lords could not sell or buy them. The wealth of feudal lords came from the labors of the peasants.

5. Manors: The Economic Side of Feudalism

The manor was the lord's estate. During the Middle Ages, the manor was the basic economic arrangement. The manor system rested on a set of rights and obligations between a lord and his serfs. The lord provided the serfs with housing, farmland, and protection. In return, the serfs tended the lord's land, cared for his animals and maintained the estate. All peasants owed the lord ceratin duties, including a few days of labor each week and a porion of their grain.

A Self-Contained World: Peasants rarely traveled more than 25 miles from their manor. A manor usually covered only a few square mile and typically consisted of the manor house, a church and workshops. Generally 15-30 families lived in the village on a manor. Fields, pastures, forests and somtimes streams surrounded hte manor. Streams and ponds provided fish, an important source of food. The manor was largely a self-sufficient community. The only outside purchases were salt, iron, and a few unusual objects such as millstones, which were used to ground flour.

The Harshness of Manor Life: For the privelege of living on a lord's land, peasants paid a high price. They paid a tax on all grain ground at the lord's mill, any attempt to dodge taxes was treated as a crime. They also paid a marriage tax, weddings could only take place with the lord's consent. In addition to these taxes, peasant families owed the lord a tithe, or church tax, which was one-tenth of their income. Serfs lived in crowded cottages with only one or two rooms, and warmed their homes by bringing pigs inside. Their only beds were piles of straw often crawled with insects. Peasants' simple diet consisted mainly of vegetables, coarse brown bread, grain, cheese, and soup.

Section 3:The Age of Chivalry C.Dunlap

6. Knighthood & Chivalry
During the early Middle Ages, knights were expected to show courage and
loyalty to their lord during battle. The code of chivalry demanded that a
knight should bravely fight in the defense of three masters. They included
his earthly feudal lord, his heavenly lord, and his chosen lady. The ideal
knight also protected the weak and the poor, and was loyal, brave, and
courteous. Most knights failed to meet these high standards and, instead,
treated the lower classes brutally. Cowardly knights who didn’t follow the
code were faced with public shame. His armor was stripped off, his shield
was cracked, his spurs were cut off, and his sword was broken over his head.
People would then throw him into a coffin, drag it down to a church, and
there a priest would chant a mock funeral service.

7. Literature of Chivalry
Feudal lords and ladies liked to listen to epic poems, which recounted a
hero’s deeds and adventures. These poems told stories about heroes of the
Middle Ages, such as King Arthur and Charlemagne. Under the code of
chivalry, knight’s duty to his lady became as important as his duty to his
lord. Troubadours were poet-musicians at the castles and courts of Europe.
They made short songs and verses about the ups and downs of love. In the
troubadour’s eyes, noblewomen were always beautiful and pure. The most
celebrated woman at the time was Eleanor of Aquitaine

Section 4

A Tumbilm

8. The Scope of Church Authority

The people that were involved in the scope were clergy, religious officials, The pope, bishops and priests. They headed the church, and bishops supervised the priests. The time during the AGE OF FAITH. ( The Middle Ages). The Scope of CHurch Authority took place in Europe. It was important because because the church was a unifying force in the daily lives of most people. If people did not obey cannon law, ( law of church) they would be punished.

9. The Church and the Holy Roman Empire

Otto I, known as Otto The Great, was head of this. Otto the Great was crowned king, formed alliance with the church, and crowned emperor. The time frame was 936-1100. It tokk place in Medieval Germany. It was important because Otto tried to carry on Charlemagne's do.

10. The Holy Roman Emperor Clashes with the Pope

The two people who clashed were Pope Gregory VII and Henry the IV. One banned lay investiture, the other ordered the Pope to step down from papacy. The time frame was 1075-1122. It took place in Canossa, the German city of Worms. It was important because German princes regained power they had lost under Otto the Great.

11. Renewed Church Conflicts Under Frederick I

Frederick I, ( Barbarossa) renewed church conflicts. He invaded rich cities of Italy, which yhe Lombard League formed against him. The time frame is 1152- 1190. It took place in Italy. These conflicts were important because Frederick I defeat undermined his authority with the German princes, but their power continued to grow in spite of Frederick's efforts.

Chapter 13 I.D. Questions

Group 2

N. Brown

Section 1 - Germanic Kingdoms Unite under Charlemagne

1. Germanic Peoples Adopt Christianity

The Germanic people had converted with the Frankish rulers and settled on Rome's former land by 600. Spreading Christianity was also done by Missionaries. Their lives were often risked so they could advance their beliefs.

2. Charlemagne Takes Center Stage

Charlemagne was one of Charles Martels sons. He built an empire stronger than any known since ancient Rome. Charlemagne traveled to Rome in 800 to crush an unruly mobe that had attacked the pope. By doing this he was crowned emperor by Pope Leo III. This coronation was historical because he had the title "Roman Emperor" but he was a European King.

C. Wiggins

Section 2 - Feudalism in Europe

3. New Invasions Trouble Western Europe

4. Feudalism Structures Society

5. Manors: The Economic Side Of Feudalism

L. Thomas

Section 3 - The Age Of Chivalry

6. Knighthood and Chivalry

7. Literature of Chivalry

H.Wade

Section 4 - The Church Wields Power

8. The Scope Of Church Authority

In crowning Charlemagne in 800, the Church sought to influence both spiritual and political matters. In 500, Pope Gelasius I recognized problems that could arise between the Church and the state. He thought that if the emperor and the pope kept their authority in the respective realms, then the two leaders could share power in harmony. But in reality, the Church and state disagreed on the boundaries of either realm and clashes erupted throughout the Middle Ages. The Church established it's own organization. The structure consisted of different ranks of clergy. The pope headed the Church, and bishops supervised priests. While feudalism and the manor system divided people, beliefs in the Church's teaching bonded people together. During a period of warfare and political turmoil, the Church was a stable force, providing Christians with a sense of security and belonging. Religion occupied center stage. The scope of the Church's power was both religious and political. All medieval Christians were subject to canon law(law of the Church) in matters like marriage and religious practices. Courts were established to try people accused of violating canon law. Two of the harshest punishments were excommunication and interdict. Excommunication-banishment from the Church-was used by popes to wield power over political rulers, which meant that the king would be denied salvation and freed the king's subjects from their duties to him. If an excommunicated king continues to disobey the pope, and even more frightening punishment might be used. Under an interdict, many sacraments and religious services could not be performed in the king's lands, without which, the subjects believed, they might be doomed to eternal suffering in hell. The possible threat of an interdict would force an emperor to submit to the pope's commands.

9. The Church And The Holy Roman Empire

After Charlemagne's death, the Holy Roman Empire was the strongest kingdom to arise from the ruins of his empire. The most effective ruler of medieval Germany was Otto I(Otto the Great), who was crowned in 936 and copied the policies of Charlemagne. He formed an alliance with the Church, building his power base by gaining the support of bishops and abbots(monastery heads). He used his power to limit the strength of the nobles and defeat unruly princes. Otto invaded Italy on the pope's behalf like Charlemagne and was rewarded with being crowned emperor in 962. The Holy Roman Empire was the strongest state in Europe until 1100. Otto's attempts to revive Charlemagne's empire caused trouble for future leaders. Italian nobles resented German rule and popes came to fear the power that German emperors held over Italy.

10. Holy Roman Emperor Clashes With The Pope

The Church began to resent the control that kings exercised over clergy, the focus of which was lay investiture, a ceremony in which kings and nobles appointed church officials. Whoever controlled lay investiture wielded the real power in naming bishops, powerful clergy that kings sought to control. Church reformers felt that bishops shouldn't be under the power of any king and in 1075, Pope Gregory VII banned lay investiture. A German emperor, Henry IV, with the approval of the bishops he'd appointed, sent a nasty letter to Gregory and ordered him to step down from the papacy. Gregory then excommunicated Henry and the German bishops and princes sided with Gregory. Henry, wanting to save his empire, tried to win the pope's forgiveness. In January 1077, Henry journeyed to a castle in Canossa, Italy where Pope Gregory was a guest and kept him waiting in the snow for three days before ending his excommunication. Henry rushed home to punish the nobles who'd rebelled against him, the pope having humiliated the proudest ruler in Europe. The fate of lay investiture remained undecided. Gregory's and Henry's successors continued to fight over lay investiture until 1122 when representatives of the pope and the king met in Worms(Germany). They reached a comprimise known as the Concordat of Worms. By its terms, the Church alone could grant a bishop his ring and staff, symbols of Church office. Yet the emperor had the veto power to prevent the appointment of a bishop.

11. Renewed Church Conflicts Under Frederick I

By 1152, the seven German princes who elected the German king realized they needed a strong ruler to keep the peace. They chose Frederick I, whose red beard earned him the nickname ''Barbarossa". He called his lands the Holy Roman Empire, but it was actually a group of feudal territories. His forceful personality and military skills enabled him to dominate the German Princes, but whenever he left the country, disorder returned. Like, Otto I, Frederick, didn't focus on building royal power in Germany, but repeatedly invaded the rich cities of Italy. His brutal tactics caused Italian merchants to unite against him. He also angered the pope, who joined the merchants. His enemies formed an alliance called the Lombard League. In 1176, the soldiers of the Lombard League faced Frederick's army of mounted knights at the battle of Legnano and defeated the feudal knights for the first time in history. In 1177, Frederick made peace with the pope and returned to Germany. However, his military defeat had undermined his authority with the German princes, whose power grew in spite of Frederick's efforts. After he drowned in 1190, his empire dissolved into an array of feudal states.

By 600 there were some Germanic people to convert to Christianity in Rome’s former lands. This was important because Nuns and Monks who lived in monasteries were established.

By 800 Charlemagne had built the greatest known empire since the ancient Rome. He was the first to reunite Western Europe for since the Roman Empire.

Between 800 and 1000, invasions completely destroyed the Carolingian Empire. The Vikings set sail from Scandinavia. The Vikings were not only warriors but also traders, farmers, and outstanding explorers. Leif Ericson reached the Americas around 1000. as Vikings accepted Christianity, the stopped raiding monasteries. The Magyars began to attack Europe after the Vikings stopped their invasions. The Muslims Struck Europe from the south.

The worst years of the invaders' attacks roughly 850 to 950, during this time Europe was ruled by feudalism. The feudal system was based on mutual obligations. The feudal system consisted of kings, vassals, knights, and peasants. In the feudal system, status determined a person's prestige and power. In Europe most people were peasants.

The Manor was the lord's house and everyone lived on the manor. The Manor System was the basic economic arrangement. Peasants rarely traveled more than 25 miles from their own manor. The manor was largely a self-sufficient. For the privilege of living on the lord's land, peasants paid a high price.

Early in the Middle Ages, knights were expected to display courage in battle and loyalty to their lord. By the 1100sm the code of chivalry, a complex set of ideals, demanded that the knight fight bravely in defense of his earthly feudal lord, his heavenly Lord, and his chosen lady. The chivalrous knight protected the weak and the poor, was loyal, brave and courteous. Yet, most failed to meet these high standards and treated the poor brutally.

War Games for Glory Sons of nobles began training for knighthood at an early age sand learned the code of chivalry. After being dubbed knight, most young men traveled with companions for a year or two. The young knights gained experience fighting in local wars and mock battles called tournaments.

Brutal Reality of War the small-scale violence of tournaments did not match the bloodshed of actual battles. Stone castles were enriched by massive walls and guard towers. The castle was home of the lord and lady, their family, knights and other men-at-arms, and servants. A castle under siege was a gory sight. Defenders of a castle poured boiling water, hot oil, and molten lead on enemy soldiers. Archers were stationed on the roof of the castle.

In the 1100’s, the theme of medieval literature downplayed the brutality of knighthood and feudal warfare. Many stories idealize castle life. They glorified knighthood and chivalry, tournaments and real battle. Songs and poems about a knight’s undying love for a lady were also popular.

Epic Poetry Feudal lords and their ladies enjoyed listening to epic poems. These poems recounted a hero’s deeds and adventures. Many epics retold stories about legendary heroes of the early Middle Ages, such as King Arthur and Charlemagne.

The Song of Roland was one of the earliest and most famous medieval epic poems.

Love Poems and Songs Under the code of chivalry, a knight’s duty to his lady became as important as his duty to his lord. In many medieval poems, the hero’s difficulties resulted from a conflict between those two obligations. Troubadours were poet-musicians at the castles and courts in Europe. The most celebrated woman of this age was Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204). Troubadours flocked to her court. Later as queen of England, Eleanor was the mother of Richard the Lion-Hearted and King John. Her daughter, Marie of Champagne, turned love into a subject of study and presided at a Famed Court of Love where troubled lovers came to air their grievances.

C. Lewis

Section 4 Chapter 13

The Scope of Church Authority

8. In the 800's in Europe the church expanded it's political power and strong rulers started to question the pope's authority. The churches sought to influence both spiritual and political matters. Clashes erupted throughout the Middle Ages the Church and various European governments competed for power.

9. The Church and the Holy Roman Empire

In the late 800's and the 900's in Germany the Holy Roman Empire was the strongest kingdom arose from the ruins of his empire. Otto I formed a close alliance with the Church. He also invaded Italy . Popes too came to fear the political power that the German emperors held over Italy.

10. Holy Roman Emperor Clashes with the Pope

In the 1000's the Church began to resent the control that kings such as Otto, exercised over clergy and their offices. They began to fight over lay investiture. In 1075 Pope Geregory VII banned lay investures. The meeting in Canossa was one of the dramatic confrontations of the Middle Ages . They reached copromise known as the Concordant of Worms.

11. Renewed Church Conflicts Under Fredrick I

In the 1100's in Germany seven Germans princies elected Fredrick . He was the first ruler to call his lands the Holy Roman Empire. He repeatedly invaded the rich cities in Itlay. He angered the Pope. His enemies formed an alliance called the Lombard League. In 1176 the Battle of Legnano took place. In 1177 he made peace with the Pope and returned to Germany. After he drowned Fredrick's empire dissolved into an array of fragmented feudal states.

M. Wiggins

World History Chapter 13 Questions

1) Germanic Peoples Adopt Christianity

By the end of the fifth century, invaders from many different Germanic groups over ran the western half of the Roman Empire. Every Germanic chief led a band of warriors who had pledged their loyalty and was very respected. In the Roman province of Gaul, a Germanic people called the Franks held power. Their leader, Clovis, would eventually bring Christianity to this region.

2) Charlemagne Takes Center Stage

Charlemagne (Also known as Charles the Great, and Charles) built an empire greater than any known since ancient Rome. After the death of Carloman Charlemagne quickly seized control of the entire kingdom. Each summer he led his armies against the enemies that surrounded his kingdom. He fought the Muslims in Spain and tribes from other Germanic Kingdoms.

B Wilder

D. Solomon

Section 3- The Age of Chivalry

6. Knighthood and Chivalry

By the 1100s, the code of chivalry was used in the Early Middle Ages. The knights had to fight in defense of their masters, so knights treated the lower classes brutally. Knights who were didn’t follow the code faced public shame. His armor was stripped, shield was cracked, his spurs were cut off, and his sword was broken over his head. At a young age the nobles trained to be knights. Some competed in tournaments. The winner would demand large demands from defeated knights. The castles were a home of the load and lord lady, their family, knights and other men-at-arms, and servants. A castle was a glory sight. The two armies would use wide ranges of strategies and weapons.

7. Literature of Chivalry

In the 1100s, the themes of literature down played the brutality of knighthood and feudal warfare. Many stories were written about castle life. Songs and poems were popular with the ladies. There were songs about epic poems. These poems recounted a hero’s deeds and adventures. Under the code of chivalry; a knight’s duty to his lady was important to his duty to his lord. The most celebrated woman was Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122-1204). Poet musicians would flocked to her court in the French Duchy of Aquitaine. She later became the Queen of England. Her son composed romantic songs and poems. Her daughter studied love as a subject. She presided at the Court of Love. Troubled lovers came to air their grievances.

D. Lane

Section 4- The Wields Power

In crowning Charlemagne emperor in 800, the Church sought to influence both spiritual and political matters. Somewhat like the system of feudalism, the Church established its own organization. The distribution of power was based on status. Church structure consisted of different ranks of clergy, or religious officials. The pope headed the Church in Rome. All, clergy, including bishops and priest, fell under his authority. Bishops settled disputes over Church teachings and religious practices. The Church provided a sense of security and a religious community to which they might belong. The Church provided a unifying set of spiritual beliefs and rituals. The Church also created a system of justice to guide people’s conduct. The Canon law was the law of the Church in matters such as marriage and religious practices. The Church also established courts to try people accused of violating canon law. Two of harshest punishments that offenders faced were excommunication and interdict. Excommunication, banishment from the Church, was used to wield power over political rulers. Under an interdict, many sacraments and religious services could not be performed in the king’s lands. Thus it was said that without such sacraments they might be doomed to eternal suffering in hell.

After the death of Charlemagne, the Holy Roman Empire was the strongest kingdom that arose from the ruins of his empire. The most effective ruler of medieval Germany was Otto I. He was known as Otto the Great. Otto was crowned king in 939, and copied the policies of Charlemagne. Otto formed a close alliance with the Church and sought help from the clergy. Otto dominated the Church in Germany. He also used his power to defeat unruly German princes. Otto formed the Holy Roman Empire.

The Church began to resent the control that the kings, such as Otto, exercised over clergy and their offices. The focus of this resentment was lay investiture- a ceremony in which kings and nobles appointed church officials. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII banned lay investiture. The furious young German emperor, Henry IV, called a meeting of German bishops he had appointed and with their approval, the emperor sent a vicious letter to Gregory VII and called him a false monk and told him that he needed to step down from the papacy. Gregory fired back and excommunicated Henry. In January 1077, Henry confronted with Gregory who soon took him off of excommunication. Afterwards, Henry rushed home to punish the nobles who rebelled against him. Gregory and Henry's successors continued to fight over lay investiture until 1122. Soon they reached a compromise known as the Concordat of Worms.

Frederick I was the first ruler to call his lands the Holy Roman Empire. However, this region was actually a patchwork of feudal territories. His forceful personality and military skills enabled him to dominate the German princes, but whenever he left the country, disorder returned. Frederick did not focus on building royal power in Germany, but he repeatedly invaded the rich cities of Italy. In 1177, Frederick made peace with the pope and returned to Germany. Although Frederick’s army was defeated their power continued to grow. After he drowned in 1190, Frederick’s empire dissolved into an array of fragmented feudal states.