Annotated Bibliography

Auerbach, Nina. “ The Rise of the Fallen Woman.” Nineteenth-Century Fiction. 35:1

            (Jun., 1980): 29-52.

            Nina Auerbach uses the archetype of the fallen woman to probe into its common use in both nineteenth century novels and poetry. Characteristically, according to Auerbach, the fallen woman most commonly appears as a scapegoat. Furthermore, these women are most commonly considered ‘fallen’ for a sexual transgression, rather than another fault in their character. In The Scarlet Letter, Hester Prynne also fits this archetype. Auerbach states that Hawthorne’s Hester Prynne is the first truly developed archetype of ‘the fallen woman’ in American Literature. “ … Hester’s fall alone enables her to stand up, imbuing her with the overweening power of the creator and created object” (37). And while Hester and Pearl have been ostracized from their community, Hester alone becomes the creator of her own destiny. In Hawthorne’s novel, Hester Prynne is transfigured by her fall.

Barnett. Claudia. “ Phyllis Nagy’s Fatal Women.”  Modern Drama. 42:1 (1999): 28-42.

            This article was very intriguing, and while I did not use the article directly in my paper. The theme is definitely present in my paper. Barnett addresses the notion of ‘female sexuality’ as a criminal act, which is how Hawthorne portrays Hester’s act in the novel. And while I have never read any of Nagy’s plays, Barnett states that “ The Scarlet Letter challenges the preconception of woman as victim, complicating the stereotyped women characters who are more likely to kill than be killed, to dominate, yield, and to feel culpable than blameless Hester Prynne refuses to submit to her victimized status, through all of her trials she remains her proud and regal status.

Berkin, Carol. First Generations: Women in Colonial America. New York: Hill and

            Wang, 1996.

This book provided a great deal of helpful information about the lives of women in colonial America. Berkin further breaks down the book in terms of class and social structure. It was extremely helpful in understanding Hester’s social situation.

Bloom, Harold. ed. Nathaniel Hawthorne . Chelsea House Publishers: New York, 1986.

This book, edited by Bloom, addresses several works of Hawthorne’s. The book examines Hawthorne’s literary genius. Furthermore, Bloom states that Hawthorne was inspired by a great many things including politics, social issues, and mesmerism.

Cassill, R.V. “ Nathaniel Hawthorne’s ‘The Birthmark’: An Overview.” Reference Guide

to Short Fiction. 1^st ed.,  Ed. Noelle Watson. 1994.  Literature Resource Center, Gale Group. http://www.galenet.com

For the most part the beginning of this article, simply summarizes the story, digging deeply into Aylmer’s obsession with Georgiana’s birthmark. The author does offer a hint of criticism at the end of the article when he compares the story to the myth of Faust.

Cowley, Malcom. “ Hawthorne’s Secret: An Un-Told Tale.” The New Republic. 191.

            (Dec. 10, 1984): 78-83.

                This article addresses the incestuous scandal in Hawthorne’s family, which may have been a precursor for his model of Hester Prynne’s punishment in The Scarlet Letter.

Easton, Alison. The Making of the Hawthorne Subject. Columbia: Missouri UP, 1996.

            Perhaps the most helpful part of this book, I found was the section on Hawthorne’s Concord Period, during which he wrote “ The Birth-Mark”. In this section of the book, the author compares the symbolism of “ The Birth-Mark” and another familiar tale “ The Bosom Serpent”. The key element for Hawthorne in these tales becomes ‘a life within a life’. In other words both Georgianna’s birth-mark and Roderick’s serpent take on lives of there own. It is through his use of allegory, that Hawthorne was able to reconcile such extreme opposites. Furthermore, Easton attempts a detailed analysis of each Hawthorne’s works in substantial detail.

Fessenden, Tracy, Radel, Nicholas F., and Magdalena J. Zaborowska. Eds. The Puritan

            Origins of American Sex: Religion, Sexuality, and National Identity in American

            Literature. New York: Routledge, 2001.

This book helped me a great deal in understanding the Puritan culture. There were many ideals, which I was unsure of, that this book helped clarify. For example, the Puritans and their suppression of their sexual attitudes and desires created increasing conflicts within the society. The Puritan notion of sex, the editors’ state, may have arisen from their notions of taming the wilderness. The Puritans focused on taming the wilderness. The wilderness symbolically represents the untamed; Puritans recognized the human passion as something that was untamed and needed to be controlled.

Fibbert, Dr. Joseph.  “ Nathaniel Hawthorne: Salem Personified.”  Salem: Cornerstones

            of A Historic Society. http://www.hawthorneinsalem.org

            This web-site contained some very helpful content in understanding Hawthorne, and the society in which he lived. Hawthorne frequently used examples from real life in his novels, frequently borrowing from events occurring in Salem history.

Forrer, Richard. Theodicies in Conflict: A Dilemma in Puritan Ethics and Nineteenth

            Century Literature. New York: Greenwood Press, 1986.

            This book was important in aiding my understanding of Puritan thoughts and beliefs, and how they affected nineteenth century literature. Puritanism greatly affected the beliefs of the Victorians. Furthermore Puritan writers addressed the treatment of ‘theodicies’ or ‘problems which continually perplexed the devout Puritans of the period. The problems in Puritan society were also similar to those, which plagued the Victorians one hundred years later.

Granger, Bruce Ingram. “ Arthur Dimmesdale as Tragic Hero.” Nineteenth-Century

Fiction. 19:2 (Sept. 1964): 197-203. Literature Resource Center. 15 Nov. 2001. www.galenet.com.

            Granger contends the Hawthorne’s novel is not the story of Hester Prynne, but rather the story of Arthur Dimmsdale. While on the surface, Dimmsdale represents a true idealist; underneath he can be nothing but a realist, and therefore a pessimist. Dimmsdale, unlike Hester, is trapped between three courses of action. It is this moral struggle that leads to Arthur’s downfall.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Celestial Railroad and Other Short Stories. R.P. Blackmur ed. 

            New York: New American Library, 1963.

            This book contains the short story “ The Birthmark”, which I used in my paper. But unfortunately did not contain nay criticism of the piece.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter. 1850. A Norton Critical Edition.  Eds.

            Richard Croom Beatty, Sculley Bradley, Seymour Gross, and E. Hudson Long.

            New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1988.

            This ‘ Norton Critical Edition’ of Hawthorne’s text, contains criticism of the novel. The book contains criticism of Hawthorne’s contemporaries as well as critics of today. It was also the version of the text, which I used to write this paper.

Hoffer, Peter Charles., ed.,  Colonial Women and Domesticity. New York: Garland

            Publishing, 1988.

            This book is a compilation of various articles related to women in the colonies. Hoffer states that the early history of American women is very much centered around the history of the family. In an article written by Lyle Koehler, the author addresses the controversy of Anne Hutchinson. This chapter was perhaps the most helpful in the book, when discussing Anne Hutchinson. Anne Hutchinson was a figure very much like Hawthorne’s Hester Prynne.

Howells, W.D. “ Hawthorne’s Hester Prynne.” Heroines of Fiction. Harper & Brothers

            Publishers, 1901. Literature Resource Center. 15 Nov. 2001. www.galenet.com.

            In this article, Howells applauds Hawthorne’s use of realism and modernist techniques.  However, his chief focus is the character of Hester Prynne and her motivation. Furthermore, Howells states that the relationship between Hester and Arthur was unlike any other seen in literature. What makes the relationship this way? The humanism of the characters. Further Howells states that because of their humanism, Hester and Arthur no longer represent archetypes, but rather they become real people.

James, Henry Jr. Hawthorne  Boston: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1879. Literature

            Resource Center. 15 Nov. 2001. www.galenet.com

            In this book Henry James, Jr. praises Hawthorne’s literary imagination. Furthermore, James argues that Hawthorne possessed originality in his writing, which was severely lacking in his time period. Hawthorne, he states, had a greater understanding of the human psyche than many people realize. “ Hawthorne had ample cognizance of the Puritan conscience”.  James states that Hawthorne’s understanding of the basis for his understanding of the human condition, and he was more concerned with examining the darker side of the human character. Hawthorne tired to familiarize himself with the psychology of the time in order to create more realistic characters. The themes of transformation and redemption are perhaps two of the most prevalent themes throughout a majority of Hawthorne’s works.

Loring, George B.. “ Hawthorne’s ‘Scarlet Letter,’”. Sept. 1850. . Massachusetts

Quarterly Review. Vol. 3: 12. pp.484-500. Literature Resource Center. 15 Nov. 2001. www.galenet.com.

In his article, Loring focuses on Hawthorne’s representation of Hester Prynne. For most readers, Hester Prynne is a heroine. Hawthorne chooses an imperfect heroine, who will one day be redeemed by her deeds. Hawthorne portrays the characteristically strong Hester in terms of male descriptions, but describes Arthur Dimmsdale as less than a man, but a disgraced coward. Loring goes on further to address the conflict between the sexes, which Hawthorne seems adamant about. Hester by virtue of her works slowly begins to redeem herself, while Dimmsdale dies a lonely coward.

Masson, David. “ A Review of ‘The Scarlet Letter: A Romance’”. June 15, 1860  The

            Athenaeum. No. 1181. pp.634.  Literature Resource Center. 15 Nov. 2001.

www.galenet.com

            David Masson’s critique of The Scarlet Letter addresses the underlying themes of the novel, including the themes of guilt and betrayal. Hawthorne uses contrasting elements in order to portray a realistic and painful way of life which Hester has been condemned to live. Furthermore, Masson states that the novel becomes even more painful for readers, when they see Hester trying to comprehend her ‘strange elfish child’. The symbol of the letter creates not only isolation from the community, but isolates Hester from Pearl in the same way that it unites them. Furthermore, Hester’s quest for redemption is also a slow and painstaking process.

Merish, Lori. Sentimental Materialism. Durham: Duke UP, 2001.

            In her book, Lori Merish examines the feminization of the American culture in the later eighteenth century. Furthermore, she goes on to examine how changing ideas of femininity affected women and the public. She further relates the role of women to the changing attitudes of the market economy, in the eighteenth century. Arguing that female consumers caused the demand for certain objects, including ‘luxurious commodities’ to increase. “ My analysis focuses on the affiliated emergence of an ethic of feminine consumption and the literary genre of domestic fiction, in which domestic material culture is often depicted in great detail, and in which personal possessions are endowed with characterological import.” (2). In other words, Merish examines how personal possessions affect character.

Pestana, Carla Gardina and Sharon V. Salinger, eds. Inequality in Early America.

            Hanover: Dartmouth College. New England UP, 1999.

This book addresses the concept of gender and racial inequality in early America. Furthermore, examining the same key social issues like gender inequality, and slavery, which were issues important to Hawthorne as well.

Reynolds, Larry J. , ed.  A Historical Guide to Nathaniel Hawthorne. London: Oxford

UP, 2001.

In this book, Reynolds addresses key issues in the history of Hawthorne’s life. Furthermore, the book attempts to place Hawthorne’s works within a specific context. Many of the key issues, Hawthorne addresses were elements to the society. For example, Hawthorne addresses issues such as children and mesmerism, which were elements important during his day.

Reid, Alfred S. “ Hawthorne’s Humanism: ‘ The Birthmark’ and Sir Kenelm Digby.”

            American Literature. 38:3. ( Nov., 1966): 337-351.

            Hawthorne derives much of his tragedies from the tragic experiences in human life. Without their tragic flaws, Hawthorne’s characters would not be as prolific. This is most clearly evident in Hawthorne’s works drawn from history, including the derivation of his short story “ The Birthmark” from the scientist Sir Kenelm Digby. Allegedly in 1633, Digby killed his wife under similar circumstances that Georgianna dies under in

“ The Birth-Mark”, rumors spread that the scientist had poisoned his wife.

            In “ The Birth-Mark” Aylmer (like Digby) is obsessed with medicines which possess a cosmetic power. Reid goes on to draw several similarities between Digby and Aylmer. And this conclusion can also be drawn with “ Rappaciccini’s Daughter” . The obsessed scientist, tackling outside forces.

Ripley, George. “ Reviews of New Books: ‘The Scarlet Letter’. 1 April 1850 . New York

Times Daily Tribune. P.2.Literature Resource Center. 15 Nov. 2001. www.galenet.com.

            Ripley’s criticism of the novel breaks the story down in terms of its characters. However, he chooses to examine the novel more in terms of plot narrative rather than character narrative. Furthermore, Ripley states that Hawthorne uses ‘elements of terror’ in which to convey his ideas, through scenes of ‘misery’ and ‘dread’.  “ The Scarlet Letter” in our opinion, is the greatest production of the author, beautifully displaying the traits we have briefly hinted at, and we sustained with a more vigorous reach of the imagination, and more subtle instinct of humanity…” Ripley examines Hawthorne’s novel in terms of the Gothic elements which made the novel so popular in its day.

Sewall, Richard B. “ The Scarlet Letter.” The Vision of Tragedy. .New Haven: Yale UP,

            1980,86-91.

In his article, Sewall addresses “ The Custom House” chapter from Hawthorne’s novel. Upon finding the letter, Surveyor Pue contemplates the meaning of the ‘fine red cloth’. Throughout the novel the characters struggle to uncover the meaning of the letter itself, an enigma to many.  When describing the character of Hester Prynne, the letter comes to represent many things.

Treckel, Paula A. To Comfort the Heart: Women in Seventeenth Century America. New

            York: Twayne Publishers, 1996.

This book addresses the experience of women in colonial America. Furthermore, it examines history from a female perspective. Women, Treckel argues, experienced greater social and political freedom than they had experienced in Europe. For the most part, women were often free to chose their spouses and they were able to negotiate their rights.

Trollope, Anthony. “ The Genius of Nathaniel Hawthorne.” The North American Review

            129. 274  Sept. 1879. 203-222. Literature Resource Center. 15 Nov. 2001.

            www.galenet.com.

            Anthony Trollope’s criticism examines the novel The Scarlet Letter  in terms of its four major characters: Hester Prynne, Roger Chillingsworth, Arthur Dimmsdale, and Pearl. Furthermore, Trollope states that the only character readers can truly sympathize with is Hester. Furthermore, readers come to almost detest Arthur Dimmsdale more than they dislike Roger. Dimmsdale becomes less heroic for his failure to own up to his sin.

Tuckerman, Henry T. “ Nathaniel Hawthorne”. Jun. 1851. The Southern Literary

Messenger . Vol. 17:6. pp.343-349. Literature Resource Center. 15 Nov. 2001. www.galenet.com

            The key element to Tuckerman’s article, is that Hawthorne as an artist, poet, and novelist, understands the human condition like no one has before. In his short stories, poems, and novels, Hawthorne addresses emotions that everyone can relate to. To relay these messages Hawthorne relies on vivid imagery to portray his ideas. Furthermore, he uses ideas and images, which make the reader, contemplate what he has just said. Through his complex allegory, Hawthorne addresses the readers in a way, which is sympathetic.  He possesses a way of reconciling opposites, which is different each time, through evoking sensual responses in the reader, through his vivid use of language.

Van Doren, Carl. The Flower of Puritanism”. Dec.8, 1920. The Nation .111:2892.

            pp.649-650. Literature Resource Center. 15 Nov. 2001. www.galenet.com

            This article offered a great perspective on Hawthorne’s reliance on the Puritan traditions he used in the novel, The Scarlet Letter. Clearly, Hawthorne relied on historical documentation to provide his fictionalized Salem, with the necessary Puritan characteristics. Hawthorne portrays a great deal of attachment to the Puritan tradition and way of life. While the novel agrees with the punishment of Hester, Hawthorne expresses a distaste for the Puritan methods. Therefore, Hester Prynne becomes an archetype for the fallen woman. “ Her story is an allegory of the passion through which the race [Puritans] continues .”  Van Doren believes that Hawthorne was never able to truly free himself from the Puritan traditions, like Hester Prynne.

Weinstein, Cindy. “ The Invisible Hand Made Visible: ‘The Birth-Mark’”. Nineteenth-

            Century Literature . 48:1. (Jun. 1993): 44-73.

            Cindy Weinstein’s article addresses several themes in Hawthorne’s short story, including the meaning behind meanings. Hawthorne stated in an 1854 letter to his publisher, James T. Fields, that at many points, Hawthorne sometimes became so wrapped up in symbolism and allegory that he forgot the entire point of the narrative. In “ The Birth-mark”, Weistein states that the mark itself represents individuality, which in 19^th century America was bad for women to have. And that by Aylmer wanting to destroy the mark, what he really seeks to destroy is her individuality.

Whipple, E.P. “ Nathaniel Hawthorne”. May. 1860. The Atlantic Monthly. Vol. 5: 31

            pp.614-622.. Literature Resource Center. 15 Nov. 2001. www.galenet.com

            Whipple’s article offers a substantial critique of Hawthorne’s two most popular works, The Scarlet Letter and The House of the Seven Gables . He states that while Hawthorne’s novels seem complex, they are however rather simple texts to interpret and understand. However, Hawthorne complicates these issues by adding psychological issues. Hawthorne further develops these issues throughout his novels. With each piece he develops his descriptions, plots, themes, and characters. Each work is a tribute to his growing talent as an author.