Information gleaned from Microsoft Encarta and Bookshelf
Portugal, republic, southwestern Europe, situated in the western portion of the Iberian Peninsula, bounded on the north and east by Spain and on the south and west by the Atlantic Ocean. The Azores and the Madeira Islands in the Atlantic are autonomous regions of Portugal, considered integral parts of the republic. The total area of metropolitan Portugal, including the Azores (2335 sq km/902 sq mi) and the Madeira Islands (794 sq km/307 sq mi), is 92,082 sq km (35,553 sq mi). Portugal has one overseas territory, Macau (Macao), in eastern Asia near Hong Kong. The capital and largest city of Portugal is Lisbon.
The frontiers of Portugal are defined by mountains and rivers, and the interior is largely mountainous. In the west and south the mountains descend to a large coastal plain that is intensively cultivated. The highest range is the Serra da Estrela in central Portugal, rising to almost 2000 m (almost 6562 ft). Portugal is traversed by three great rivers, which rise in Spain and empty into the Atlantic Ocean. The Tagus (Tejo), with Lisbon situated at its mouth, is the largest river; followed by the Douro (Duero), with Oporto at its mouth; and the Guadiana, which forms part of the eastern frontier. A fourth river, the Minho, forms part of the northern frontier.
The climate varies according to altitude, and high temperatures occur only in the comparatively low regions of the south. The mean annual temperature north of the Douro River is about 10° C (about 50° F); between the Tagus and Douro, about 15.6° C (about 60° F); and in the valley of the Guadiana, about 18.3° C (about 65° F). Rainfall is heavy, particularly in the north.
The most valuable of Portugal's natural resources are its minerals. Much of this wealth was not developed until after World War II (1939-1945). Among the mineral resources are coal, copper, gold, iron ore, kaolin, tin, and wolframite, which is a source of tungsten. Although a substantial segment of the population supports itself by agriculture, the land is not particularly suited to this occupation. The plants and animals of Portugal are virtually identical with those of Spain. The most abundant trees are the evergreen oak, cork oak, poplar, and olive. Grapevines flourish in the arid soil, and port wine from Oporto and Madeira wine from Madeira are world famous. Wild animals include the wolf, lynx, wildcat, fox, wild boar, wild goat, deer, and hare. Birdlife and insects abound. Portugal also has an abundance of waterpower resources in its rivers and mountain streams.
The Portuguese are a combination of several ethnic elements, principally Iberians, Romans, Visigoths, and later Moors. The people still live, for the most part, in rural villages.
Population Characteristics
The population of Portugal, including the Azores and Madeira Islands, was (1992 estimate) 9,859,600. The overall population density was about 113 persons per sq km (292 per sq mi).
Political Divisions
Mainland Portugal is divided into 18 districts for administrative purposes: Aveiro, Beja, Braga, Bragança, Castelo Branco, Coimbra, Évora, Faro, Guarda, Leiria, Lisbon, Oporto, Portalalegre, Santarém, Setúbal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real, and Viseu. The Azores and the Madeira Islands each constitute an autonomous region.
Lisbon (population, 1981 preliminary, 812,385), the capital and largest city, is a leading seaport of Portugal. Other important cities include Oporto (329,104), the second-largest city and seaport; Coimbra (56,568), an industrial center; and Faro (20,687), in the Algarve resort area.
Roman Catholicism is the faith of more than 94 percent of the Portuguese people. The constitution guarantees freedom of religion, and some Protestant churches have been established. The official language of the country is Portuguese (see Portuguese Language).
Elementary education is free and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15. Secondary education is voluntary. In the late 1980s Portugal had about 12,700 primary schools annually attended by some 1,234,300 pupils and staffed by more than 75,400 teachers. The country's 1500 secondary schools were staffed by about 53,900 teachers and had about 647,400 students.
Approximately 109,200 students attended Portugal's institutions of higher education in the late 1980s. The University of Coimbra, in Coimbra, and the University of Lisbon, in Lisbon, were both founded in the 13th century in Lisbon.
Portuguese culture is closely related to Spanish culture and has been influenced by the three primary cultures from which it derives: the Latin, the Visigoth (see Goths), and the Muslim (see Islam).
Lisbon has a number of important libraries, including the Library of the Academy of Sciences, the Ajuda Library, the National Library, and the Military Library. The National Archives of Torre do Tombo, also in Lisbon, is noteworthy for its collection of historical documents dating from the 9th century. The provincial libraries in Oporto, Évora, Braga, and Mafra contain many rare old books and large manuscript collections. Various specialized libraries are attached to the universities.
Museums of archaeology, art, and ethnography are found in the principal cities and towns of each district. The art museum in Coimbra is famous for its collection of 16th-century sculpture; the museum in Évora is known for Roman sculpture and 16th-century paintings. The National Museum of Ancient Art, in Lisbon, houses decorative art and paintings from the 12th to the 19th century. Also in Lisbon are the National Museum of Contemporary Art; the National Museum of Natural History; the Calouste Gulbenkian Museum, with a collection of fine art dating from 2800 BC to the 20th century; the Ethnographical Museum; and the Archaeological Museum.
Some of the relics found in Portugal date from prehistoric times. Dolmens, ancient stone burial chambers, have been found along the Atlantic coast, and in the Algarve region, tombs dating from the Iron Age have been discovered. Some of the country's most important monuments were constructed during the Roman occupation of the Iberian Peninsula (2nd century BC-5th century AD). The so-called Temple of Diana in the southeast, the ruins of the city of Conimbriga on the western coast, and the bridge of Chaves in Trásos Montes e Alto Douro in the east are fine examples of Roman architecture. Subsequent occupation by the Visigoths in the 5th century and by the Muslim Moors in the 8th century can be discerned in the styles of many of Portugal's buildings and churches.
The 14th century was the golden age of Portuguese sculpture, at which time such notable monuments as the tombs of the kings at Alcobaça were produced. The sculptors of the Renaissance and baroque periods in Portugal did their finest work for the church.
The Portuguese are a musical people, and their folk music ranges from very lively songs and dances to sad laments. Similar to other music of the Iberian Peninsula, Portugese music reflects three major influences: the Roman Catholic church, the troubadours of the kings, and the wandering minstrels who sang their stories across the countryside.
For a discussion of the literature of the country, see Portuguese Literature.
Although the Portuguese economy grew by 5.3 percent annually during 1965 to 1980, the economic growth rate slowed to less than 1 percent during the 1980s, and Portugal remains the least developed nation in Western Europe. The country's gross national product in the late 1980s was $29.6 billion, or about $2890 per capita. The estimated annual budget in the late 1980s included $8 billion in revenue and $11.1 billion in expenditure.
Agriculture engages some 20 percent of the employed civilian working population and accounts for about 8 percent of the yearly gross domestic product (GDP). Chief crops and annual production figures for the late 1980s were potatoes (795,000 metric tons), grapes (1.4 million), tomatoes (865,000), corn (663,000), wheat (401,000), and olives (149,000). Portugal is one of the world's leading producers of wine and olive oil. Livestock numbered approximately 1.4 million cattle, 5.2 million sheep, 2.8 million pigs, and 18 million poultry.
Forestry and Fishing
Approximately 40 percent of Portugal is forested. The country is one of the largest producers of cork in the world; in the mid-1980s the annual output of cork products exceeded 301,400 metric tons. The roundwood harvest in the late 1980s amounted to 9.4 million cu m (332 million cu ft) annually.
Commercial fishing is also important to the Portuguese economy. The annual fish catch in the late 1980s totaled about 395,250 metric tons, of which more than 25 percent was sardines.
Mining
Annual mineral production in Portugal in the late 1980s included 254,000 metric tons of coal, 279,100 metric tons of copper-bearing iron pyrites, 57,000 metric tons of kaolin, 2000 metric tons of tungsten concentrates, and smaller quantities of copper, gold, silver, and tin. Mining of uranium deposits was begun in 1979.
Manufacturing is of increasing importance to the economy of Portugal, employing about 23 percent of the labor force. Major manufactures include processed food; textiles; machinery; chemicals; wood, glass and pottery items; refined petroleum; and building materials. Annual output in the mid-1980s included about 27,400 metric tons of processed sardines, 285,900 metric tons of refined sugar, 1.3 million metric tons of fertilizer, and 386,900 metric tons of steel ingots. An oil refinery and petrochemical complex opened south of Lisbon in 1979. Products of cottage industries, such as lace, pottery, and tiles, are world famous.
Energy
In the late 1980s, Portugal had an installed electricity-generating capacity of about 6.9 million kw, and annual production was some 20.1 billion kwh. About 46 percent of Portugal's electricity was generated by hydroelectric facilities.
The unit of currency in Portugal is the escudo, consisting of 100 centavos (144 escudos equal U.S.$1; 1995). In the late 1980s annual Portuguese imports totaled about $17.9 billion and exports about $12.8 billion. Principal imports included mineral fuels, machinery and transportation equipment, and food and livestock. Principal exports included clothing, textile yarns and fabrics, and wood and paper products. Among Portugal's chief trading partners were Germany, Great Britain, the United States, France, Spain, and Italy. Foreign exchange receipts from tourism, amounting to more than $2 billion annually in the late 1980s, help to compensate for the chronic trade deficit.
Transportation
Portugal has about 61,600 km (about 38,280 mi) of paved roads and some 2.6 million registered passenger cars. The railroad system has a total length of about 3610 km (about 2240 mi). Most of the tracks are wide gauge to accommodate shipments from Spain. The merchant marine comprises more than 300 vessels. Major seaports include Lisbon, Leixões, Setúbal, and Funchal (Madeira). Transportes Aéreos Portugueses (TAP), the national airline, provides domestic and international service. A number of foreign airlines also have scheduled stops at Lisbon's international airport.
Communications
In the late 1980s Portugal had about 2.1 million telephones, 2.2 million radios, and 1.6 million television sets. Daily newspapers numbered about 30 and had a combined circulation of more than 850,000.
Labor
In the late 1980s the total labor force in Portugal was about 4.7 million, of which labor unions, or syndicates, enrolled approximately 55 percent.
Government
Portugal is governed under a constitution promulgated in 1976 and revised in 1982. Although the constitution initially called for the creation of a "classless" state based on public ownership of land, natural resources, and the principal means of production, this socialist language was stricken in 1989. The right to strike and the right of assembly are guaranteed, and censorship and the death penalty are proscribed.
Executive
Portugal is a republic with a president, popularly elected to a five-year term, as head of state. The president of the republic appoints the prime minister, who is the country's chief administrative official. The prime minister presides over a cabinet of about 15 ministers.
Legislature
Legislative power is vested in a unicameral parliament, the Assembly of the Republic. Members of the Assembly are elected under a system of proportional representation and serve four-year terms. The Assembly had a total of 230 seats in the early 1990s.
Judiciary
The judicial system in Portugal is headed by the Supreme Court, which is made up of a president and 29 judges. Below the Supreme Court are courts of appeal and ordinary and special district courts.
Local Government
Local authority is vested in the district governors and district legislatures. Each district is further subdivided into parishes, each with an elected assembly and council.
The leading political parties in Portugal are the Socialist party (PS), the Social Democratic party (PSD), the United People's Alliance (APU), and the Social Democratic Center party (CDS). Running in coalition as the Democratic Alliance, the PSD and CDS together captured parliamentary majorities in the elections of 1979 and 1980. In 1983, however, with the Democratic Alliance dissolved, the PS swept into power in coalition with the PSD. The PSD led the vote in the parliamentary elections of 1985 and won clear majorities in 1987 and 1991.
Defense
Portugal, a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, has modern, well-equipped armed forces. Military service is compulsory for male citizens for terms of 16 to 24 months. In the late 1980s the armed forces numbered about 75,300 people—44,000 in the army, 16,100 in the navy, and 15,200 in the air force.
Up to the Middle Ages, the history of Portugal is inseparable from that of Spain. Present-day Portugal became a part of the Roman province of Lusitania in the 2nd century BC. In the 5th century AD control of the region passed to the Visigoths, and in the 8th century it was included in the area of Moorish Muslim conquest. In 997 the territory between the Douro and Minho rivers (now northern Portugal) was retaken from the Moors by Bermudo II, king of León, and in 1064 the reconquest was completed as far south as present-day Coimbra by Ferdinand I, king of Castile and León. The reconquered districts were then organized into a feudal county, composed of Spanish fiefs. Portugal later derived its name from the northernmost fief, the Comitatus Portaculenis, which extended around the old Roman seaport of Portus Cale (present-day Oporto).
In 1093 Henry of Burgundy came to the assistance of Castile when it was invaded by the Moors. In gratitude Alfonso I of Castile made Henry count of Portugal. On the death of Alfonso in 1109, Count Henry, and later his widow, Teresa, refused to continue feudal allegiance to León. He invaded León and began a series of peninsular wars, but with little success. In 1128 his son, Alfonso Henriques, later Alfonso I, king of Portugal, rebelled against his mother. The Portuguese knights accepted Alfonso as king in 1143, and in 1179 the pope recognized the independence of Portugal.
The Medieval Kingdom of Portugal
Alfonso I, aided by the Templars and other military orders sworn to fight the Moors, extended the border of the new kingdom as far south as the Tagus River. His son Sancho I, who reigned from 1185 to 1211, encouraged Christians to settle in the reconquered area by establishing self-governing municipalities there. The Cistercian monks occupied the land and promoted efficient agricultural methods. In the late 12th century, the Almohads, a Muslim dynasty from North Africa, temporarily halted the Christians' southward movement, but after their defeat in 1212 at Las Navas de Tolosa in Castile the reconquest continued.
King Alfonso III, who reigned from 1248 to 1279, completed the expulsion of the Moors from the Algarve and moved the capital of Portugal from Coimbra to Lisbon. He also began the practice of governing with the aid of a Cortes (representative assembly), which included members of the nobility, the clergy, and the citizens, and he increased the power of the monarchy at the expense of the church. His son Diniz, called the Farmer King because of his encouragement of agriculture, founded the nation's first university at Coimbra and was responsible for the development of the Portuguese navy. In 1294 he signed a commercial treaty with England, beginning a sequence of alliances between the two countries. Diniz's successor, Alfonso IV, joined with Alfonso XI of Castile to win a major victory over the Moors at the Battle of the Salado River in 1340. In this period the royal houses of Castile and Portugal frequently intermarried, repeatedly raising the possibility that one of the kingdoms might be absorbed by the other.
After the death of Ferdinand I, the last of the legitimate descendants of Henry of Burgundy, his illegitimate half brother John I secured the Portuguese throne in 1385, after two years of civil war. His branch of the Burgundian line became known as the house of Aviz. John's reign was one of the most notable in Portuguese history. He successfully defended the kingdom against Castilian attack and in 1385 defeated Castile decisively in the Battle of Aljubarrota. In 1386 England and Portugal allied themselves permanently by the Treaty of Windsor. The greatest fame of John's reign, however, rests on the work done under the direction of his son Henry the Navigator, prince of Portugal, in exploring the African coast for an eastward route to the Indies. A century of exploration and conquest began, which made Portugal one of the greatest colonial powers in the world. In 1418 and 1419 Portuguese navigators explored Madeira and in 1427 discovered the Azores. A successful Portuguese military campaign in Morocco resulted in the capture of Ceuta in 1415.
The Era of Portuguese Expansion
Madeira and the Azores rapidly became important centers of sugar production, and the capture of Ceuta gave Portugal a foothold in Africa, providing the impetus for further exploration of the African coast. Using the caravel, a new type of light sailing vessel especially adapted for Atlantic voyages, Portuguese mariners sailed as far south as Cape Verde in 1444, and by 1460 they had reached Sierra Leone. Meanwhile, John I's successors, King Duarte (reigned 1433-38) and Alfonso V, sent further expeditions to Morocco, capturing the cities of Tangier and Arzila (Asilah).
The Reign of John II
King John II restored the prestige the monarchy had lost at home during the reigns of his two predecessors, subjecting the turbulent nobles to his authority. Abroad, he founded (1482) a Portuguese stronghold at Elmina, in present-day Ghana, and established relations with the kingdom of the Kongo (in present-day Angola). In 1487 and 1488, Bartholomeu Dias became the first to sail around the southern end of Africa, opening the sea route to the Orient. After Christopher Columbus's voyage to America in 1492, Portugal and Spain concluded the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), allocating to Portugal all undiscovered lands east of a line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. See Demarcation, Line of.
Emanuel and His Successors (1495-1580)
Under King Emanuel, Portuguese power reached its height. From 1497 to 1499 Vasco da Gama made the first voyage to India following the route discovered by Dias, and inaugurated a lucrative trade in spices and other luxuries between Europe and South Asia. Led by Afonso de Albuquerque, the Portuguese occupied Goa, India, in 1510, Malacca (now Melaka, Malaysia) in 1511, the Moluccas (in present-day Indonesia) in 1512-14, and Hormuz Island in the Persian Gulf in 1515. During the same period they opened up trade with China and established relations with Ethiopia. As other Portuguese kings had done, Emanuel dreamed of uniting Portugal and Spain under his rule and successively married two daughters of King Ferdinand V and Queen Isabella I. Under pressure from his Spanish relations, he followed their example by expelling Jews and Muslims from his domains in 1497, thus depriving Portugal of much of its middle class. His son, John III, promoted the settlement of Brazil and (again influenced by the example of Spain) introduced (1536) the Inquisition into Portugal to enforce religious uniformity. By the time he died in 1557, Portugal had begun to decline as a political and commercial power. This trend continued under King Sebastian, who was killed during another expedition against Morocco in 1578. On the death of his successor, King Henry, in 1580, the Aviz dynasty came to an end.
The Habsburg and Braganza Dynasties
When Henry died, seven claimants disputed the succession to the throne. The most powerful was Philip II, king of Spain, who in 1580 became Philip I of Portugal. The annexation of Portugal to the Spanish Habsburg monarchy subjected it to the heavy expenses of Spanish wars in a period known as the Sixty Years' Captivity. After 1600, Portuguese domination of trade with the East Indies was lost to the Dutch and the English. Under Philip I, Portugal enjoyed considerable autonomy, but his successors, Philip II (Philip III of Spain) and Philip III (Philip IV of Spain), treated it as a Spanish province, provoking widespread discontent. After unsuccessful revolts in 1634 and 1637, Portuguese conspirators with the support of France won independence for their kingdom in 1640. John, duke of Braganza, was elected John IV, first king of the house of Braganza, which ruled Portugal as long as the monarchy endured.
John IV and His Successors (1640-1816)
King John expelled the Dutch from Brazil, which they had occupied in 1630, and renewed the traditional tie with England. Although further weakened by conflicts with Spain in the second half of the 17th century, Portugal recovered a measure of prosperity in the 18th century, after gold and diamonds were discovered in Brazil. Between 1683 and 1750, during the reigns of Pedro II and John V, British merchants came to dominate Portuguese trade; the monarchy became more despotic and the Cortes fell into disuse. During the reign (1750-77) of Joseph Emanuel, the kingdom was controlled by the chief-minister, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Mello, marquês de Pombal, considered one of the greatest statesmen in modern Portuguese history. Although a ruthless dictator, he worked to weaken the power of the privileged nobility and the church, encouraged industry and education, and ended the foreign monopoly of trade. Pombal was dismissed, however, at the accession of Joseph Emanuel's daughter Maria I in 1777. During the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, Portugal sided with Britain against France.
In 1807, when the armies of Napoleon threatened Portugal, the royal family withdrew to Brazil and made Rio de Janeiro the seat of government. A French army occupied Portugal but was defeated in 1808 by a British army under Sir Arthur Wellesley, 1st duke of Wellington. By the Convention of Sintra (August 30, 1808), the French left the country, but they reinvaded a year later. Wellington again checked the French advance, and by 1811 Portugal was free of French influence. The Portuguese royal family chose, however, to remain in Brazil, which in 1815 was made a separate kingdom. In 1816 John VI succeeded to the two thrones, ruling Portugal through a council of regency.
The Constitutional Monarchy
In 1820 the Portuguese army headed a revolution designed to bring about a constitutional government. King John, who agreed to return to Portugal as constitutional monarch, made his son, Dom Pedro, regent of Brazil. Brazil proclaimed itself independent in 1822, and Pedro was made constitutional emperor Pedro I of that country. In Portugal, meanwhile, Pedro's brother, Dom Miguel, appealed to the supporters of absolute monarchy to overthrow the constitutionalists, and an insurrection led by the prince almost succeeded on April 30, 1824. King John managed to remain in power, however, and Miguel went into exile in Vienna.
In 1826 Pedro I of Brazil succeeded to the throne of Portugal as Pedro IV. He put into effect a constitutional charter, providing for a parliamentary regime based on authorization of the monarchy rather than on popular will. He then abdicated in favor of his daughter, Maria II, called Maria da Gloria, a 7-year-old child. Miguel returned from Vienna in 1828 and, ruling as regent for Maria II, seized the throne. A period of acute civil strife followed. With the help of England, France, and Spain, Maria was restored to the throne in 1834.
Political conflict characterized her reign as the Liberals, who supported the 1822 constitution, opposed the Chartists, who supported the 1826 charter. Under her successors—Pedro V, who reigned from 1853 to 1861, and Louis, who reigned from 1861 to 1889—political strife became less pronounced.
Republican and radical movements grew during the reign of Carlos I, and the appointment of João Franco, an antirepublican dictator, as prime minister in 1906 served to increase their strength. In 1908 Carlos and his eldest son were assassinated in Lisbon. The second son of Carlos ascended the throne as Manuel II, and although he restored constitutional government, his corruption equaled that of his father. In October 1910 the army and navy led a revolution that deposed Manuel and established a republic. A liberal constitution was put into effect in 1911, and one of its provisions separated church from state. Manuel José de Arriaga was elected first president of the Portuguese republic.
For the next 15 years Portugal was shaken by political chaos. Ministry succeeded ministry, with an average duration of four months in office. Early in 1916 during World War I, Portugal, honoring its alliance with Great Britain, seized German ships in the harbor of Lisbon. On March 9 Germany declared war. Portuguese troops fought in France and in Africa. Internal disorder and political turbulence, however, continued, and in 1919 a Royalist uprising added to the confusion. In May 1926, an army coup deposed the 40th ministry since the proclamation of the republic. Within a few days of their success the military leaders selected General António de Fragoso Carmona to head the new government. In 1928 Carmona was elected president in an election in which he was the sole candidate. In the same year he appointed António de Oliveira Salazar, a professor of economics at the University of Coimbra, as minister of finance. Salazar was given extraordinary powers in order to put Portuguese finances on a sound basis.
The Salazar Regime
Salazar was successful in this task and rapidly became the most powerful political figure in Portugal. Profoundly religious, he restored much of the power of the church. In 1930 he founded the União Nacional (National Union), a political organization based on authoritarian principles. He became prime minister and dictator in 1932 and was influential in the promulgation of a new constitution in 1933. Portugal became a corporative state with a planned economy, its new regime being called the Estado Novo (New State). No opposition was countenanced. In 1936, with the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, Salazar supported the insurgents, led by General Francisco Franco. In 1939 Portugal signed a friendship and nonaggression pact with Spain, to which, on July 29, 1940, was added a protocol designed to ensure the neutrality of both countries during World War II. In October 1943, however, when the Axis powers were weakening, Portugal allowed the Allies to base planes and ships in the Azores.
The planned economy was considerably disturbed during the war years. The fishing industry declined, exports lessened, and refugees crowded the country. Moreover, the Japanese advance in the East Indies threatened Portuguese overseas territories in Asia, and Timor was captured in 1942. By the end of the war, unemployment and poverty were widespread. Political opposition to Salazar was suppressed, however, and National Union candidates monopolized the elections of November 1945. In May 1947, after crushing an attempted revolt, the government deported numerous labor leaders and army officers to the Cape Verde Islands. Marshal Carmona was reelected to the presidency without opposition in February 1949. He died in April 1951 and was succeeded in July by General Francisco Lopes, a supporter of Salazar.
During the 1950s, Portugal developed close relations with the United States, and in 1958 Salazar allowed an opposition candidate, Humberto Delgado, to run for the presidency, but he was defeated by the government's candidate, Rear Admiral Américo Deus Tomás. Tomás was reelected in 1965 and 1971.
In the 1960s, Portugal faced opposition to its rule in the overseas territories. India annexed Portuguese Goa in 1961. In Africa, rebellion broke out in Angola in early 1961, in Portuguese Guinea in late 1962, and in Mozambique in the fall of 1964. The government mounted intensive military campaigns against each African rebellion. It also passed measures to improve political and economic conditions within the territories. In 1961 Portugal extended Portuguese citizenship to Africans in the territories; however, heavy fighting continued throughout the decade and into the 1970s. During these years the United Nations condemned Portugal for waging "colonial wars."
In the mid-1960s a number of foreign loans helped to finance major irrigation and construction projects, and some economic growth was gradually realized. Although several student demonstrations occurred during this period, political opposition to the Salazar regime remained uncoordinated.
Democratic Reforms
On September 29, 1968, Marcello Caetano, a law professor and businessman and a longtime associate of Salazar, became prime minister, succeeding Salazar, who had been incapacitated by a cerebral stroke. Although Caetano called for reforms when he took office, he continued Salazar's repressive policies, especially in Africa.
A series of military and political advances made by African liberation movements threatened Portugal's economic stability and led to the overthrow of the Caetano government by a group of Portuguese army officers on April 25, 1974. A seven-man junta, under Gen António de Spinola, was installed and promised democracy at home and peace for the African territories. During 1974 and 1975, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, the Cape Verde Islands, Sao Tome and Principe, and Angola became independent, and in 1975 and 1976 Portuguese Timor was occupied by Indonesian forces. The return of troops and European settlers to Portugal from the newly independent nations aggravated Portugal's own problems of unemployment and political unrest.
On September 30, 1974, Spinola resigned the presidency, warning of growing Communist influence. He was replaced by General Francisco da Costa Gomes. Vasco Gonçalves, who had become prime minister in July, remained in office. Early in 1975, the Movement of the Armed Forces (Movimento das Forças Armadas, or MFA) assumed a formal role in the government, and steps were taken to reorganize the armed forces. The provisional government passed a law establishing a single trade union confederation and began to reform the economic and social life of Portugal. Among the first actions to be undertaken were the nationalization of certain types of heavy industry and banking, and the expropriation and redistribution of large agricultural holdings. In March a right-wing coup attempt, reportedly directed by Spinola, was suppressed. In April the Socialists led in the voting for a constituent assembly.
Gonçalves formed a new government, but it proved unstable. After a series of clashes between Socialists and Communists, followed by violent anti-Communist demonstrations, especially in the north, the MFA established a triumvirate consisting of Costa Gomes, Gonçalves, and General Otelo de Carvalho, Portugal's security chief. In September, at the army's insistence, Gonçalves was replaced as prime minister by Vice Admiral José de Azevedo. Under the Azevedo government, relative stability was restored, and a new investment code was adopted to attract foreign capital. In parliamentary elections in April 1976, the Socialists won a plurality of the vote, and their leader, Mário Soares, became prime minister. In June General António Ramalho Eanes was elected president of Portugal. The country experienced severe economic problems during the next two years, and in mid-1978 Soares was dismissed. After the fall of two successive interim governments, the conservative Democratic Alliance, headed by Francisco Manuel de Sá Carneiro, won a clear majority in parliamentary elections held in December 1979. Sá Carneiro took office as premier in January 1980, but was killed in a plane crash the following December. He was succeeded in January 1981 by Francisco Pinto Balsemão, another conservative. On his initiative, the military Council of the Revolution was abolished in 1982 by constitutional amendment. Parliamentary elections in April 1983 brought Soares back into power as prime minister. Soares's government introduced an austerity program and conducted negotiations leading toward Portugal's entry into the European Community (now called the European Union). Elections in October 1985 led to the formation of a minority government under a Social Democrat, Aníbal Cavaço Silva. Soares returned as president following elections in 1986; Portugal entered the European Community the same year. In the 1987 elections the Social Democrats won control of parliament, the first time a single party held the majority since 1975. President Soares won another term in January 1991, and the Social Democrats held their majority in parliamentary elections in October. In 1992 mass student demonstrations against university entrance examinations resulted in the resignation of the minister of education, public-service employees struck for wage increases, and doctors staged a two-day strike to protest government plans to privatize some health services.
In foreign affairs, Portugal improved its relations with the government of Spain in the late 1980s. Negotiations with the People's Republic of China resulted in a 1987 agreement to transfer Macao, Portugal's overseas territory, to Chinese control in December 1999. Beginning in 1988, Portugal played a significant role in the process to restore peace to Angola, a former Portuguese possession, and participated in negotiations for peace in Mozambique. Discussions with Indonesia regarding control of the former Portuguese territory of East Timor continued, despite setbacks, in the early 1990s.
Lisbon (Portuguese Lisboa; ancient Olisipo), capital and largest city of Portugal, and also capital of Lisbon District, in western Portugal, on the Tagus River where the river expands before it enters the Atlantic Ocean. Lisbon is the center of the country's rail and highway network, and an international airport is nearby. The major industrial and commercial area of Portugal, Lisbon has an exceptionally fine harbor and is also the chief seaport. In Lisbon are shipbuilding yards, petroleum refineries, and plants producing chemicals, foodstuffs, hardware, paper, and textiles. Imports are mainly raw materials, and the chief exports include cork, canned fish, olive oil, resin, and wine.
Buildings
The city is built on the terraced sides of a range of low hills overlooking the harbor. In the older section the streets are narrow and crooked, but the newer section has straight, broad, tree-lined avenues, handsome squares, and extensive public gardens. Lisbon is the seat of an archbishopric and contains many old churches, convents, and monasteries. It is also the site of the Sé, a Romanesque-Gothic cathedral built in the 12th century and partially ruined by successive earthquakes. A Hieronymite convent in the suburb of Belém was built in the 16th century to mark the discovery of a sea passage to India by the navigator Vasco da Gama. It contains the tombs of da Gama and the Portuguese poet Luís Vaz de Camões. Notable educational and cultural institutions in the city include several libraries, museums, and colleges and universities, the oldest of which is the University of Lisbon (1288).
History
Lisbon is believed to have been founded by the Phoenicians and occupied by the Romans in the 2nd century BC and by the Visigoths in the 5th century AD. The city was held by the Moors from 716 until it was recaptured by the Portuguese in 1147. Around 1260 Lisbon became the capital of the kingdom of Portugal, and following a period of colonial expansion, it became one of the wealthiest cities in Europe. It declined in importance during the period of Spanish rule (1580-1640). In 1755 an earthquake, followed by a tidal wave and a fire, destroyed much of the city. Portugal was a neutral nation during World War II, and Lisbon became both a haven and a port of embarkation for refugees from all over Europe. A 1988 fire, called the worst disaster in the city's history since 1755, destroyed the shopping district. Population (1981 preliminary) 812,385.
Iberian Peninsula, peninsula, southwestern Europe, separated from the rest of the continent by the Pyrenees. It is divided politically into Spain, Portugal, and the British dependency of Gibraltar.
Macau (also spelled Macao), overseas territory of Portugal, on the southeastern coast of China, west of Hong Kong. It consists of a peninsula and three islands—Coloane and the two Taipa islands, located on the estuary of the Zhu Jiang (Chu Chiang), near its mouth on the South China Sea. Macau has a total area of 16 sq km (6 sq mi).
The city of Macau occupies most of the hilly peninsula; its border with the Chinese province of Guangdong is marked by the massive Barrier Gate erected by the Portuguese in 1849. Macau City is the commercial and administrative center of the province and has more than 80 percent of the total population. The islands are mostly rocky and contain several villages and some small agricultural plots. The peninsula is linked by bridge to one of the Taipa islands, which in turn is connected by causeway with Coloane.
Macau is a free port, which means that all vessels may load or unload there without paying import duties. Manufactures include textiles, footwear, firecrackers, electronic equipment, precision instruments, and handicrafts, and the city has an active fishing fleet and exports fish products. Tourism is an important industry, with many visitors attracted by the gambling casinos. Macau is connected by ferry to Guangzhou (Canton) and Hong Kong. An international airport is scheduled to open in Macau in 1995. The population is about 95 percent Chinese.
Macau is the oldest permanent European settlement in East Asia. First visited by Portuguese navigators in the early 16th century, it was established as a trading colony in 1557. It soon flourished as the principal trading port between China and the West. In 1849 the Portuguese proclaimed sovereignty of the settlement; this act was formally recognized by China in a treaty in 1887. By the end of the 19th century, with the silting of its harbor and the growth of the port of Hong Kong, Macau lost its preeminence in Chinese trade. As its trade declined, Macau gained a reputation as a smuggling and gambling center. Its population was swelled by refugees from Communist China after 1949. In 1967 the city experienced severe pro-Communist riots. In the late 1970s, Macau was given increased administrative and economic independence. In 1987, Portuguese and Chinese negotiators reached agreement on the return of Macau to China in 1999. Population (1989 estimate) 484,000.
Madeira Islands, archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, located about 1100 km (about 700 mi) southwest of Portugal, an autonomous region of that country. The Madeiras consist of two inhabited islands, Madeira and Porto Santo, and two uninhabited island groups, the Desertas and the Selvagens. The islands have a total area of 794 sq km (307 sq mi), with Madeira Island by far the largest at 55 km (34 mi) long and 22 km (14 mi) wide. The capital and largest city is Funchal (population, 1981, 44,111), located on Madeira Island.
Madeira means "wood" in the Portuguese language, and the archipelago was named for its large forests and dense vegetation. The Madeiras have lush tropical and semitropical plant life and extensive gardens, and are famous for their mild, pleasant climate. Madeira Island features a mountainous topography; the island's highest point is Ruivo de Santana Peak, 1861 m (6106 ft) high.
The islands are relatively sparsely settled. The total population of the Madeiras at the 1991 census was 253,400; the estimated population in the mid-1990s is 275,000. The majority of the people live on Madeira Island, which has about 270,000 inhabitants. Porto Santo, 42 km (26 mi) northeast of Madeira Island, had an estimated population of 5000 in the mid-1990s. A large number of Madeiran emigrants reside in South Africa and the United States.
The Madeiran economy is centered on agricultural production, especially sugar, wine grapes, and bananas. The internationally famous Madeira wine comes in several varieties and is an important export. While its variety of tropical fruits remains a resource, Madeiran hand-embroidered linen has also become a major source of revenue. This traditional craft is said to have been introduced to the islands in the 19th century by an Englishwoman. Fishing has long contributed to the Madeiran economy, and in recent decades tourism has increased in importance. The economy and infrastructure of the Madeiras have benefited from Portugal's membership in the European Union (called the European Community when Portugal joined in 1986). There have been recent improvements in Funchal's international airport, as well as its road system.
As an autonomous region of Portugal, the Madeiras have their own legislature and some control over taxation. While at least two political parties participate in local elections, the Social Democratic party has retained political predominance since the implementation of the 1976 constitution, which established the framework for the region's government.
The islands were first discovered uninhabited by the Portuguese explorer João Gonçalves Zarco in 1418. Shortly thereafter, Prince Henry the Navigator began colonization of the islands and established sugar plantations. These plantations became the prototype for the plantation system developed for the Portuguese colonies in the Americas after 1550. The importance of Madeira wine to the local economy surpassed that of sugar beginning in the late 17th century. A British colony of merchants and entrepreneurs established themselves on Madeira around this time, and eventually came to dominate the islands' linen, wine, banking, export, and tourism industries. During the Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815), British forces occupied and administered the islands as part of the British Empire; the British later evacuated the islands. Large tourist hotels and other facilities have been constructed in or near Funchal in the latter half of the 20th century.
Henry the Navigator (1394-1460), prince of Portugal, noted as the patron of navigation and exploration, born in Oporto. He was the third son of John I, king of Portugal. Henry participated in the capture of Ceuta in North Africa from the Moors in 1415. Subsequently he made his residence at Sagres, Portugal, near Cape Saint Vincent, and there established an observatory and the first school for navigators in Europe. Henry also made improvements in the art of shipbuilding. The caravel, a sailing ship, was designed at Sagres. He made no voyages himself, but under his direction many important expeditions were undertaken along the west coast of Africa. Henry's navigators reached Madeira in 1420, sailed around Cape Bojador in 1434, sailed to Cape Blanc in 1441, rounded Cape Verde in 1445, and reached the mouth of the Gambia River in present-day Gambia about 1446.
Funchal, capital city of the Madeira Islands, an autonomous region of Portugal. The city is located on the southern shore of Madeira, the region's largest island, on Funchal Bay. Industries here include sugar and flour milling, wine production, fruit canning, and the manufacture of tobacco products and soap. Fish, fruit, and the famous Madeira wines, as well as embroideries and laces, are exported. The city, sometimes called the Pearl of the Ocean, is a noted winter resort because of its beaches and mild climate. It is the site of remains of 16th- and 17th-century forts and of the 15th-century Cathedral of Santa Clara, which contains the tomb of João Gonçalves Zarco, discoverer of Madeira and founder of Funchal. Founded in 1421 and chartered in 1508, it was under Spanish rule from 1580 to 1640 and was occupied by the British in 1801 and 1807. Population (1981 estimate) 44,111.
Azores, archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, located about 1300 km (about 800 mi) west of Portugal, an autonomous region of that country. The Azores cover a total of 2247 sq km (868 sq mi), and include nine major islands in three scattered groups: the eastern group, which includes the major islands São Miguel and Santa Maria, and the Formigas islets; the central group (Faial, Pico, São Jorge, Terceira, and Graciosa); and the northwestern group (Flores and Corvo). The largest city in the Azores is Ponta Delgada (population, 1981, 22,200), located on the island of São Miguel.
With the exception of Santa Maria, the Azores are volcanic in origin. Periodic eruptions and earthquakes have devastated island settlements throughout history. Most of the islands have steep topography, with the high point occurring on Pico at 2351 m (7713 ft). The islands enjoy a relatively temperate climate, but they also are subject to severe Atlantic winds, storms, and currents. The average winter temperature is 14° C (57° F), while the average summer temperature is 23° C (74° F).
The total population of the Azores at the 1991 census was 237,800; the estimated population in the mid-1990s is 260,000. Except for a few large towns, such as Ponta Delgada and Angra do Heroísmo (located on Terceira), the sparse population is scattered throughout the islands. Azorean emigration to North America has been a major factor in Azorean history, economy, and culture. Beginning in the 19th century when island residents joined the crews of American whaling ships, large numbers of Azoreans have emigrated to work and live in both the United States and Canada. By the 1990s, more Azoreans resided in North America than in the archipelago.
Once dominated by sugar, wheat, and oranges, the Azorean economy today features other types of agriculture as well as fishing and tourism. Chief agricultural products include cattle, dairy products, tobacco, and pineapples. As an autonomous region of Portugal, the Azores have a large measure of financial and administrative freedom. A regional assembly is elected from the Azores' three administrative districts, which are named after their capital cities: Ponta Delgada, Angra do Heroísmo, and Horta (located on Faial). The Social Democratic party is the leading political party.
The Azores were discovered by Portuguese sailors in 1427 and were settled by Portuguese and Flemish colonists beginning in the 1430s and 1440s. Occupied by Spain from 1580 to 1640, the Azores were the site of naval battles between the English and the Spanish and Portuguese. During World War II (1939-1945), neutral Portugal allowed Great Britain and the United States to place naval and air bases in the islands. After the war, a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) airbase was established on Terceira by the United States. In 1976, with the ratification of Portugal's new constitution, the Azores became an autonomous region. In addition to their strategic position for military purposes, the location of the Azores also facilitates the collection of essential weather information for meteorologists.
Faial, also Fayal, island, Portugal, one of the Azores, in the Atlantic Ocean. It was named Faial (Portuguese, "beech wood") because of the abundance at that time (15th century) of wax myrtle, Myrica faya, mistaken for beech by the Portuguese. Faial is mountainous, rising to more than 914 m (more than 3000 ft) above sea level, and is about 23 km (about 14 mi) long by 16 km (10 mi) wide. Fishing, cattle raising, and farming are the principal occupations. The soil is fertile, and wheat, corn, flax, potatoes, onions, and fruits are grown. Basket weaving, carving (from the white pith of the fig tree), and lace making (from agave thread) are widely done. Horta is the chief town and seaport of the island. Area, 166 sq km (64 sq mi); population (estimated) 17,500.
Terceira, island, northern Atlantic Ocean, second largest island of the Azores, near São Jorge Island. Like the rest of the Azores, it belongs to Portugal. The chief town is Angra do Heroísmo. Grain and cattle are exported.
Back to Main Table of Contents
This page
hosted by 
Get your own Free
Home Page
