The Bible Codes
Part II
It is the glory of God to conceal a matter,
But the glory of kings is to search out a matter.
Proverbs 25:2

      (Editor’s note: The 97-5 issue of Hebrew Roots contained Part I of the Bible Codes article. It covered information on what constitutes ‘Bible Codes,’ and why they are considered to be statistically significant. It also looked at some of the codes that have been found by the code researchers. In addition, Part I examined the Jewish belief that the Torah was given by HaShem to Moshe letter by letter, and the effect that the emendations might have on the ‘Bible or Torah Codes.)

      Not only have Jewish writers been busy in the ‘Torah Codes’ research, Christian writers have also gotten into the act. Three recent books by Christian authors that have been reviewed by this writer are:

Yeshua, The Hebrew Factor
By Yacov A. Rambsel
Companion Press
Shippensburg, PA, /996
173 pages; US$11.95

The Signature of God
by Grant B. Jeffrey
pub. by Frontier Research
Publications, Inc.
Toronto, 1996
2 75 pages; US$13.95

His Name is Jesus
by Yacov Rambsel
pub. by Frontier Research
Publications, Inc.
Toronto, 1997
264 pages; US $12.99

      All three of these books are available from: Frontier Research Publications, Inc., PO Box 470470, Tulsa, OK 74147-04 70, or P0 Box U, Toronto, Ontario M8Z 5M4.
      These books take a quite different approach than did the two books covered in Part I: The Bible Code, by Michael Drosnin and Cracking the Bible Code, by Jeffrey Satinover. Yacov Rambsel and Grant Jeffrey are Believers, and teach that Yeshua is the Messiah. They are not scientists or mathematicians, so their work does not purport to give statistical evidence about the ‘codes’ that they have found in the Hebrew Scriptures. Yet, the evidence they provide appears to be quite substantial.
      It goes without saying, that anyone who makes the effort to try and find hidden codes in the Hebrew scriptures probably has a background that will cause them to look for things that will prove true their particular understanding. An Orthodox Jew will probably look for codes that will confirm his particular religious beliefs. Likewise, a Christian will search for confirmation that Yeshua is the Messiah. Of the five books reviewed, only Michael Drosnin’s could be said to be somewhat free of religious persuasion. Even though Drosnin is Jewish, he does not believe in the existence of God, but he does claim to believe in the Bible Codes. Thus, he becomes sort of like a modem day Nostradamus, one who delves into the mysteries of the codes in hopes of being able to predict the future. He bases this hope on the fact that many past events, that could not have been known ahead of time, have been uncovered in the code research.

~ Code Discoveries ~

      Listed below are a number of discoveries which deal with historical events that could not possibly have been known by ancient humans, nor (according to the researchers) could they be hidden in the text by mere chance. The examples which follow are all taken from Michael Drosnin’s book The Bible Code. Each separate code is enclosed in quote marks. The code groupings indicate the codes that are said to lie within a reasonable proximity to each other in the text. This means the various connected words or phrases are physically close in the text, or, in some instances, actually cross each other. What Drosnin does not tell us is where in the Torah, these various ‘codes’ are found. The first set of code groupings have to do with the ‘Bible Codes’ themselves.

      These are all considered to be a references to the following scripture found in the book of Daniel.

      "‘But you, Daniel, shut up the words, and seal the book until the time of the end; many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall increase.’
      "And he said, ‘Go
your way, Daniel, for the words are closed up and sealed till the time of the end.’"
(Dan. 12:4,9)

      Many researchers believe that the Bible Codes are an unsealing’ of ‘the book,’ i.e., the Scriptures. It is an ancient Jewish teaching that everything that ever happened, or ever will happen, is encoded within the text of the Torah. That includes facts about every individual who ever lived.
      According to Drosnin, other ‘hidden codes’ include:

      As can be seen from these examples, Drosnin makes some astounding claims about finding modem historical information within the Bible Codes. What he fails to present in his book is the statistical evidence that this information falls within limits that prove these finds lay outside the realm of mere chance. Despite this weakness, one must admit that his findings are quite remarkable.

~ Other Findings ~

      While many (but not all) of Drosnin’s claims have not been substantiated by statistical evidence, there are similar findings, that have been uncovered by the researchers, that are complete with impressive statistical support.
      The following examples are from Jeffrey Satinover’s book: Cracking the Bible Code.

      In the above example the Hebrew word for ‘substances’ crosses the word ‘ketones.’ Both ‘ketones’ and ‘naunyn’ are terms related to diabetes.
      A second array yields the following codes related to diabetes:

      Other code arrays (arrays are similar to the 10 character grids shown in the previous article) include:

~ Predicting the Future ~

      Since there appears to be all of this information available concerning events in both the ancient and recent past, is it possible that the Bible Codes could be used to learn what is going to happen in the near future? This is a question that a great many people are interested in finding out, especially with the current storm of ‘millennium fever’ that is striking the world as the year 2000 approaches.
      The answer is yes, the Bible Codes are said to have been used to predict certain things that are proven to have come to pass, before the actual event took place. However, before delving into this subject it is imperative that everyone understand the following scripture:

      "‘When you come into the land which the LORD your God is giving you, you shall not learn to follow the abominations of those nations. There shall not be found among you anyone who makes his son or his daughter pass through the fire, or one who practices witchcraft, or a soothsayer, or one who interprets omens, or a sorcerer, or one who conjures spells, or a medium, or a spiritist, or one who calls up the dead.
      "‘For all who do these things
are an abomination to the LORD, and because of these abominations the LORD your God drives them out from before you. You shall be blameless before the LORD your God. For these nations which you will dispossess listened to soothsayers and diviners; but as for you, the LORD your God has not appointed such for you.’"
(Deut. 18:9-14)

      Is frying to locate prophesies within the Bible Code a form of ‘soothsaying?’ Many believe it is, including Yacov Rambsel and Grant Jeffrey. However, others hold to the opinion that since these events are encoded in the Scriptures they are from God, and therefore it is our duty as students of the Torah to try and discern them. Let us look at two events which were said to be found in the codes prior to their happening.
      The first has to do with the Iraqi Scud missile attacks on Israel during the Persian Gulf War. Israel had been asked by the United States not to retaliate if they were attacked by missile. The US did not want the conflict to escalate into a war between the Arabs and the Jews, since the original conflict was strictly between Arabs. Saddam Hussein knew that if he could draw Israel into the war it might turn the Arab countries who were united against him into a joint war with Israel. He therefore launched the Scud missile attacks to try and draw Israel into the war and get the Arabs back on his side.
Searching the Bible Codes, the researchers have found the following significant words and phases:

      Quite an impressive array of facts concerning the Gulf War. Satinover claims he was told that the date of the first SCUD attack was actually found before the war started. However, the ‘3rd of Shevat’ was only one of three dates that were found, all of them possibilities. Thus it was known that the Bible Codes predicted that SCUD missiles would fall on Israel but they did not know which of the three days was the correct date. The fact that one of the three dates proved to be correct is another significant argument that the Bible Codes are real, and that an intelligence far greater that what we humans possess has placed them in the Torah.
      Michael Drosnin has been highly criticized for including in his book, The Bible Codes, information that he claims predicts a coming series of catastrophic events, all found coded in the Torah. Because of his findings, Drosnin relates how he sought a meeting with Israeli Prime Minister Benyamin (‘Bibi’) Netanyahu in order to warn him of an impending assassination attempt. Drosnin claims to have also found the assassination of Itzachk Rabin in the codes, and tried to warn him. As we all know, Rabin was assassinated (on the very date Drosnin claims to have found) but Netanyahu is still alive.
Concerning Netanyahu, Drosnin claims to have found the following codes:

      However, Drosnin also says that crossing each of the last three predictions listed above was the Hebrew word for "delayed." Thus, he claims, the assassination of Netanyahu was delayed just as the codes said it might be. Does this mean that he will be murdered in the future? Only time will tell.

~ Five Futures, Five Roads ~

      According to Drosnin there is even more information about this ‘coming’ event. He claims it is actually tied to another world war.

      This original prediction states that Bibi Netanyahu was to be assassinated on July 25, 1996 in Jordan. Obviously, this event did not take place as predicted since it is now 1998 and he is still alive. Drosnin says:

      "But Netanyahu did not go to Amman, as scheduled, on the 9th of Av. And ‘delayed’ is again encoded with both the date and the Prime Minister’s name.
      "In fact, both ‘Bibi’ and ‘delayed’ are encoded with ‘9th of Av, 5756.’ In the same verse, there is an interwoven hidden text that states, ‘Five futures, five roads.’
      "It was a clear statement that the future had been changed. It also seemed a clear statement that there were many possible futures, and that the Bible code revealed each of them." (The Bible Code, pp 163-164).

      Is it possible that although the ‘codes’ not only report what happened in the past, they also predict what will happen in the future? Is it possible that a number of paths are laid out before us and man has the free will to pick which one to follow? That is the case that Drosnin is making. He continues this train of thought in his book:

      "‘Everything is foreseen, but freedom of action is given,’ states the Talmud, the ancient commentary on
Biblical law....
      "I told Rips (Eliyahu Rips is one of the Torah code researchers) that it seemed to me there were two ways to read the famous lines from the Talmud. First, that we have free will, but what we choose to do is known before we do it. Second, that although the entire future is foreseen, we can change it.
      "‘I can’t accept that we can change what was foreseen,’ said Rips, ‘because all the changes we make were also known to God in advance.
      "‘I used to think that our future was foreseen, period,’ Rips continued. ‘But the Bible code caused me to realize that there is another alternative--all our possible futures were foreseen, and we are choosing among them.’
      "Why didn’t the Bible code just tell the one real future? The answer appears to be that there isn’t just one real future, there are many possible futures." (pp. 164-165).

      So if you believe that prophecies can fail, as it is written:

      "Love never fails. But whether there are prophecies, they will fail; ..."
(I Cor. 13:8a)

or that it is possible to change the future through repentance (as per Ninevah in the time of Jonah), then take heart; according to Michael Drosnin, the Bible codes do not cast anything in concrete. Freewill has and always will exist. However, it is pretty evident that the prophecies given in the surface text (the regular written text) of the Bible are going to come to pass just as the Prophets and our Messiah have given them, for that is HaShem’s (YHVH) will.
      Is it possible that the famous ‘Great Sages’ test that was run on the Torah (see Bible Codes; Part I) might also contain other information about the sages lives? For example, is it possible that some of them had the potential of becoming detractors to Rabbinic Judaism, but instead made the choices in there lives that led them to become great Jewish sages instead? According to the above theory that is entirely possible. However, since we only know what the sages actually did, the researchers have no way of knowing what to look for in terms of alternatives. The same is true for predicting the future. Since only general things can be searched; like if a world leader will be assassinated, or if another atomic holocaust will occur, it is well nigh impossible to really predict the future in any detailed way. This is true, especially if there are multiple roads down which the world might travel to its eventual destruction.

      "‘Heaven and earth will pass away, but My words will by no means pass away.’"
(Matt. 24:3 5)

~ Do the Bible Codes ~
~ Support Rabbinic Judaism ~
~ Above Other Religions? ~

      It has been suggested that the reason the Bible codes have been brought forth at this time is to give credence to the Hebrew Masoretic text, the text used by the Rabbinic Jews, thereby supporting their claim of being the one ‘true religion’ of HaShem. Nothing could be further from the truth.
      If the codes really do exist (and are from the hand of HaShem Himself), and if every individual who ever lived is somewhere encoded in the Scriptures, then it stands to reason that the mere fact that the codes contain the names and dates of famous Jewish sages would not be a supportive confirmation of Rabbinic Judaism as the ‘one true religion.’ What it does do is recognize the fact that these Jewish sages did exist and did live at particular times throughout history. In other words, what it really shows is the scope of HaShem's understanding, not the efficacy of a particular religion.
      It is quite possible that a similar list of all the Popes of the Roman Catholic Church could also be found encoded in the Torah. Such a find would not confirm that Church as the ‘one true religion’ either. It is also possible that one could locate Martin Luther, John Calvin, John Wesley, Joseph Smith, Buddha and Mohammed as well. We must all be careful not to ascribe to the Bible codes things which are neither found in them, nor claimed by their researchers.
      In reality, what the Bible codes do confirm is that HaShem is indeed the Creator God and ruler of all, and that He knew before the foundation of the world what options would be open to each one of us. Baruch HaShem (Praise the Name).

~ Yeshua in the Codes ~

      This brings us to the question; do the Bible codes confirm that Yeshua is the Mashiach (Messiah or Christ)? Both Yacov Rambsel and Grant Jeffrey would answer with a resounding YES! But, does their research hold up to the high statistical standards of the Jewish code researchers? The answer to this question is a resounding NO! Does this mean that the codes do not prove that Yeshua is the Messiah? After you have studied the rest of this article (or better yet, read the books), you be the judge.
      Grant Jeffrey makes the following cautionary statements in the Introduction to Yacov Rambsel’s latest book: His Name is Jesus.

      "1. These codes have been found only in the Hebrew Masoretic text of the Old Testament. No one has been able to locate detailed, meaningful Bible codes in any other Hebrew literature outside the Bible. ... Several researchers have told me they found indications of codes in the Greek of the New Testament, but no detailed research has been published to date.
      "2. No one can search the Bible using these codes to foretell future events. It is impossible to extract the encoded information unless you already know what the future facts are. ... Agnostic writer Michael Drosnin, in a recent book called Bible Code, has claimed that he discovered codes that allowed him to predict future events. However, a close examination of his claims reveals that the encoded information is insufficient to allow anyone to confidently predict any future event.
      "3. These Hebrew codes do not contain any hidden theological or doctrinal messages.
      "4. Why then did God place these hidden Hebrew codes in the text of the Bible? ... the last ninety years have witnessed an unrelenting assault on the authority of the Bible by the intellectual elite, the academic community, and the media. ... The discovery in the last decade of these incredible codes provides powerful evidence to our skeptical generation that God truly inspired the writers of the Bible to record 1-lis message to mankind." (pp. 22-24)

~ More Yeshua Codes ~

      Yacov Rambsel does not limit his research to the Torah alone. His code findings encompass the entirety of the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament). Rambsel is a Messianic Jew, that is, he is a Jew who has accepted Yeshua (Jesus) as his Lord and Saviour. He is one of a growing number of Jewish people who are finding their Messiah in the person they prefer to call by his Hebrew name, Yeshua of Nazareth.
      In his first book, Yeshua, The Hebrew Factor (which was renamed to; Yeshua - The Name of Jesus Revealed in the Old Testament), Rambsel did all of his code research by hand. He counted out the equidistant letter sequences (ELS) without the aid of a computer. It appears that with his second book (His Name is Jesus), Rambsel is now using the speed and accuracy of a computer to aid him in his research.
      One of the major arguments brought forth against Rambsel’s research is that it is not backed up by any statistical evidence as to the probability of the findings being anything except mere chance. It is true that this is a weakness in Rambsel’s work. However, he is a Torah teacher and congregational leader, not a statistician. That fact should not be held against his work, rather it should cause us to require Rambsel to give us mountains of evidence for his claims. In this writer’s opinion, he has done that.
      In The Bible Codes; Part I, we wrote about the Jewish researchers finding ‘related word clusters.’ These are findings where significantly related words are clustered within a particular passage. Two examples were given, both were taken from the book; Cracking the Bible Codes, by Jeffrey Satinover. Both examples are found in the early verses of the book of Genesis.

"And God said, ‘See, I have given you every herb that yields seed which is on the face of all the earth, and every tree whose fruit yields seed; to you it shall be for food."
(Gen. 1:29)

      In the passage found in Genesis 1:29-2:16, are embedded the names of the seven species of seed-bearing plants found in Israel. They are: barley, wheat, vine, date, olive, fig and pomegranate.
      An overlapping passage, Genesis 2:7-3:3, contains (encoded) all twenty-five of the ‘trees’ said to traditionally be found in Israel. They are: wheat, vine, grape, chestnut, thicket, date palm, acacia, boxthorn, cedar, pistachio, fig, willow, pomegranate, aloe, tamarisk, oak, poplar, cassia, almond, terebinth, thornbush, hazel, olive, citron and gopherwood. According to the code researchers the odds of finding all twenty-five of these ‘trees’ within this passage are said to be 1 in 100,000.
      Now let us turn to the book of Isaiah where we find a passage of scripture that is known as the "Suffering Servant" passage. It begins in Isaiah 52:

"Behold, My Servant shall deal prudently,
He shall be exalted and extolled and be very high.
Just as many were astonished at you,
So His visage was marred more than any man,
And His form more than the sons of men;
So shall He sprinkle many nations."
(Isa. 52:13:15a)

      Rambsel has found encoded within this passage Yeshua Shmi () "Yeshua (Jesus) is My Name." (p. 28). By itself, this would probably not be a statistically significant discovery. However, Rambsel (after being challenged by Grant Jeffrey) went into an in-depth investigation of this passage (it includes Isaiah chapters 52-54) and his discoveries can be said to equal, if not exceed, the previous 1 in 100,000 example found in Genesis concerning the trees.
      What Yacov Rambsel has found are the names of all twelve of Yeshua’s disciples (excluding Judas), the names of the High Priests (Annas and Caiaphas), the phrases "the disciples," "the Nazarene," and the words "HaMashiach," "Galilee," and three occurrences of the name Miriam (Mary).
      Also found are the following: "Pharisee," "the man Herod," "Joseph," "the bread," "wine," "Salome," "abhor, weep bitterly," "My cross of death," "Passover," "purify yourself," "in My Passover forever," "in Yeshua and the Father," "the ram of His cross, bitterly cursed," "the great hades (hell)," "whip (scourge), they, demon (devil)," "fullness of the whip," "ravage, destroy," "Satan," "bind up," "from the great scourge," "crucify three," "behold, Messiah," "Barabbas," "Chanukkah," "the cross of captivity," and "neutralize Lucifer." These findings are just the tip of the iceberg of what Yacov Rambsel presents in his new book.
      One fact about the ELS codes needs to be mentioned at this point. The fewer Hebrew letters contained in a word or phrase, the more likely it is for that word or phrase to be found in the ELS. For example, a three letter word will be found, by chance, more frequently than a four letter word. Any two letter word will always be found in ELS (since all one has to do is find the first letter and then count in the text until you find the second letter), so such a find is meaningless unless it is contained within a meaningful phase of other words. Some of Rambsel’s findings include rather lengthy phases. These phases would be more statistically significant than very short words would be. Finding particularly lengthy phases in ELS are much less likely to be the result of mere chance, and are a greater proof that they constitute legitimate Bible codes.
      Now if these findings are indeed true, then it is this writer’s conclusion that the odds must be far greater than 1 in 100,000 that so many related ‘word clusters’ concerning Yeshua's life be found within such a limited area.
      Rambsel gives the starting point and the ELS for each occurrence so you can check it out for yourself if you have a Masoretic Hebrew Bible. If you are interested in perusing this phenomena further, you will probably find his books in most any Christian bookstore. -We highly recommend them.

~ What Does It Prove? ~

      In a world filled with skeptics it is impossible to prove anything to anyone who does not want to hear it. We have been lied to so many times in our lives that it is difficult to believe anything just because someone says it. There are always loopholes that can be found, or errors (large or small) that are made by fallible human beings. The problem facing Believers, when it comes to showing that Yeshua is the Messiah from the evidence found in the Bible codes, is that it has not been proven statistically. Even the Jewish scholars, who have been very careful to statistically prove all of their findings (Drosnin excepted), are not believed by many in the scientific community. The reason for this is that many scientists and mathematicians just do not want to accept the fact that an all-knowing Creator God exists, and that lie has given us a guidebook by which we all should be living. Therefore, many in the scholarly community prefer to make light of the findings, or belittle the methodology. That is fine in the scientific community, for they need to prove all things scientifically. Their careful research and slowness of acceptance is based on decades of preposterous theories that have been floated by a number of people who’s methods and science have been faulty. It is no wonder they take their time before accepting any new theory.
      One thing that would help the Believing community in this controversy, is if they could enlist reputable researchers who could conduct statistical tests on the ‘Yeshua codes.’ If their results proved to be as statistically reliable as those which have been done by the Jewish researchers, it could have a major impact.

~ A Matter of Faith ~

      In the end, what it all boils down to for the average person, is a matter of faith. Either we believe in HaShem and
Yeshua by faith or we do not. That is our true test. It is impossible to ‘prove’ anything to someone who does not want to hear it. When all is said and done, it is up to HaShem to flip the switch in the mind of each individual so they can see the fact that He exists and the Scriptures are indeed His Word. If HaShem chooses to do this though the Bible codes, fine, but that certainly is not the way it has to be done.
      My own personal realization that God does indeed exist, came not though my faculties of reasoning, but as an understanding’ that was so profound that I could not deny it, even if I had wanted to do so. It was, and continues to be, a faith matter, and it came to me as a free gift.

      "For by grace have you been saved, through faith, and that not of yourselves; it is the gift of God."
(Eph. 2:8)

      What does HaShem say about those who look to science for their proofs, or who refuse the clear teaching of the Scriptures because it is not ‘provable?’

"But Jeshurun grew fat and kicked; ...
Then he forsook God
who made him,
And scornfully esteemed the Rock of his salvation. ...

"And when the LORD
saw it, He spurned them,
Because of the provocation of His sons and His daughters.
And He said: ‘I will hide My face from them,
I will
see what their end will be,
For they
are a perverse generation,
Children in whom
is no faith.’"
(Deut. 32:15,19-20)

"Behold the proud,
His soul is not upright in him;
But the just shall live by his faith."
(Hab. 2:4)

      Like our father Abraham, whether we believe HaShem or not is strictly a matter of faith. Because Abraham did believe God, it was counted to him for righteousness, and he was called the ‘friend of God.’ Today it is no different. The ‘proof that HaShem exists and that Yeshua, His Son and our Saviour, is within us, is not a belief that comes from something external. How did it get there? Even that is from HaShem. He is the one who has given us His Holy Spirit to remind us daily of our betrothal state.
      Our Father in heaven is the one who has chosen us to be a part of his Son’s Bride. He is the one who has called us. However, we do have the right of refusal. We did not have to accept the cup of wine that betrothed us to Yeshua, and even today we can refuse to renew that marriage betrothal covenant at the annual Passover. It is all a matter of faith. Bible codes will not do it. Scientific analysis will not do it. Even if someone we knew were raised from the dead, it would not ‘prove’ to the unbeliever that HaShem exists or that Yeshua is the Messiah. In the famous parable of Lazarus and the Rich Man, the rich man asked that Abraham send the resurrected Lazarus to his five brothers so that they might believe and repent. Abraham’s reply was:

"‘They have Moses and the prophets; let them hear them.’
"And he said, ‘No, father Abraham; but if one goes to them from the dead, they will repent.’
"But he said to him, ‘If they do not hear Moses and the prophets, neither will they be persuaded though one rise from the dead.’"
(Luke 16:29-31)

"If they do not hear Moses and
the prophets, neither will they be
persuaded though one rise from
the dead."

      Even if a person is shown the ‘Bible Codes’ that apply to them personally, if they do not have faith they will not listen. For mankind already has the Torah which, according to tradition, was given to Moshe letter by letter from the lips of HaShem. If that is not convincing enough, then codes will not do it and neither will physical resurrections.

      "Now this I say lest anyone should deceive you with persuasive words. For though I am absent in the flesh, yet I am with you in spirit, rejoicing to see your good order and the steadfastness of your faith in Christ.
      "As you have therefore received Christ Jesus the Lord, so walk in Him, rooted and built up in Him and established in the faith, as you have been taught, abounding in it with thanksgiving. Beware lest anyone cheat you through philosophy and empty deceit, according to the tradition of men, according to the basic principles of the world, and not according to Christ. For in Him dwells all the fullness of the Godhead bodily; and you are complete in Him, who is the head of all principality and power."
(Col. 2:4-10)

      Do not base your faith on whether or not the Bible Codes are true. Do not look to science to prove or disprove the existence of our Creator God. Do not look to codes that may or may not exist in the New Testament Scriptures. Rather, look to HaShem, look to Yeshua for the "hope of glory."

      "Now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen."
(Heb. 11:1)

      "‘Behold, I come quickly! Hold fast what you have, that no one may take your crown.’"
(Rev. 3:11)

            Shalom!

            DEW

~ Sources ~

Drosnin, Michael, The Bible Code, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1997.
Jeffrey, Grant R., The Signature of God, Frontier Research Publications, Inc., Toronto, 1996.
The Open Bible, The New King James Version, Thomas Nelson Publishers, Nashville, 1985.
Rambsel, Yacov, His Name is Jesus, Frontier Research Publications, Inc., Toronto, 1997.
______ , Yeshua, The Hebrew Factor, Companion Press, Shippensburg, PA, 1996.
Satinover, Jeffrey, MD., Cracking the Bible Code, William Morrow and Co., New York, 1997.

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