CE Geography-A Summary
Section B-Population & Man-land relationship
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PART 4 - Issues arising from man-land interaction
A.
Natural hazards
1.
Natural hazards
a. They are events of the natural environment that may cause harm to human being.
b. Processes of the environment cause natural hazards which are of three types:
i. Meteorological: drought, flood, typhoon and landslide.
ii. Geomorphic: earthquakes, volcanic eruption, tsunami and landslide.
iii. Biological: diseases.
2.
Earthquakes
a. These are vibrations of the surface caused by shock waves set up by a sudden release of accumulated strain energy when a tectonic plate moves.
b. Surface waves cause most of the damage.
c. The point of origin of an earthquake lies below the surface and is called the focus. The point on the surface immediately above this is called the epicentre.
d. The intensity (strength) of an earthquake is recorded by a seismograph.
e. The magnitude (amount of energy released) by an earthquake is given by the Richter Scale.
f. The main hazards presented by earthquakes are breakdown of communications, landslides, fire and tsunamis.
g. Ways of reducing earthquake hazards include:
i. Specially designed buildings.
ii. Controlling the maximum height of buildings in earthquake zones.
iii. Maintaining adequate emergency facilities such as relief centres, hospitals, accommodation centres.
iv. Maintaining emergency power facilities.
v. Maintaining fire-fighting services.
vi. Making the public aware of what to do when an earthquake emergency arises.
3.
Hazards caused by human activities
Over-population is one of the main causes of these hazards. This has resulted directly and indirectly in the following hazards.
a. Deforestation so that crops can be grown. This often resulted in loss of soil through soil erosion.
b. The growing of crops and the rearing of animals in regions of unreliable rainfall. This has led to desertification in semi-arid regions.
c. Monoculture, growing the same crop on the same land year after year, has led to soil erosion.
Other human activities which have caused hazards.
a. Wrong farming methods such as ploughing at right angles to the contours on sloping land.
b. Over-grazing.
c. Landslides caused by excavating the bottom of slopes or adding material to the top of slopes.
4.
Types of soil erosion and soil conservation
a. By water as sheet erosion and gully erosion.
b. By wind.
c. Soil conservation can be achieved by contour ploughing, terracing, strip cultivation, re-afforestation and land management.
5.
Huang He Basin
a. The floods of this basin were caused by: deforestation in the middle and upper parts of the basin, very heavy rainfall in July and August resulting in the river rising above bankfull level, deposition of sediment of river’s bed in the lower course which lowered the bed slope.
b. Droughts which occur are caused by unreliable rainfall, high pressures and high evaporation.
c. The Huang He Basin Scheme is multi-purpose to: prevent floods, provide irrigation water, generate electricity and reforest the upper slopes of the basin.
6.
Human response to hazards
a. In developed countries: early warning systems, provision of emergency facilities, effective planning of the environment to minimize risks.
b. In developing countries: reliance on international organisations for help when a disaster occurs.
B.
Energy resources
1.
Energy resources
a. Energy is the capacity to do work. Energy has several forms.
b. Energy is essential to all forms of life.
c. Coal, natural gas and oil contain stored solar energy.
d. The sun is the source of all energy.
2.
Types of energy resources
Renewable
energy resources
a.
Water power
i. Regions with heavy and reliable rainfall all offer the best sites for development.
ii. Cheap, clean and renewable.
iii. Building dams to store water in reservoirs is expensive.
b.
Solar energy
i. Unreliable because it depends on regular sunshine.
ii. Expensive to harness on a large scale.
iii. Useful for providing hot water for domestic use.
iv. Clean and renewable.
c.
Tidal energy
i. It can be harnesses in only a few estuaries at present.
ii. Tidal barrages are expensive to construct.
iii. Tidal barrages may disrupt shipping.
iv. Clean and renewable.
d.
Wind energy
i. Not all winds are dependable therefore the power supply is unreliable.
ii. Equipment is fairly cheap to erect.
iii. clean and renewable.
e.
Geothermal energy
i. Can only be developed where there is super-heated water below the surface.
ii. Fairly expensive to build power plants.
iii. Clean and renewable.
Non-renewable
energy resources
a.
Coal
i. There are large reserves in many regions.
ii. Most of the easily accessible deposits have been mined: deeper deposits are expensive and dangerous to mine.
iii. Very efficient for generating electricity.
iv. More difficult to handle and transport.
v. Causes air pollution.
b.
Natural gas
i. Has become an importance energy resource in the last 30 years.
ii. Can be refined and transported more easily than oil.
iii. It produces less pollutants than coal and oil.
c.
Nuclear energy
i. It is the most hazardous of all energy resources.
ii. It forms only a small percentage of the world’s energy consumption.
d.
Oil
Production,
consumption and transportation
i. Production depends on quality of the oil, accessibility to the oil deposits, size of the deposit and political factors.
ii. The main oil producers are the Middle East, the former USSR, North America and Latin America (Mexico and South America).
iii. The main oil consumers are North America, Europe, the former USSR and Japan. These regions contain the largest industrialised zones.
iv. Oil is transported mainly by tankers and pipelines.
v. Most of the oil is refined in the consuming regions.
The
use of oil
i. The main use of oil is as a fuel (petrol and diesel oil).
ii. Oil refining produces many by-products which are used in the manufacture of chemicals, fertilizers, plastics, synthetic rubber, synthetic fibres and medicines.
The
imbalance between production and consumption
This has resulted in the development of new industries, new transportation systems, new towns and new ports.
The
energy policies of governments
i. Members of OPEC agreed to cut back the global production of oil in 1973 by raising the price of oil. This led to the oil crisis.
ii. The aim of OPEC is for its members to own the oil in their countries and to control its price.
iii. The Oil Crisis led to the search for alternative sources of energy and in part to the conservation of oil. This was done by many countries putting a heavy tax on petrol and diesel oil.
3.
Pollution caused by oil usage
a. Pollution affects the air, water and the soil.
i. Air pollution - exhaust fumes of motor vehicles, trains, ships, aeroplanes and smoke from power stations.
ii. Water pollution - oil spillage.
iii. Soil pollution - excessive use of fertilizers.
b. Main pollutants - sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, CFCs, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, oil spillage and fertilizers.
4.
Conservation of energy resources
a. International controls over production and consumption.
b. Use of highly efficient small motor cars.
c. Increasing use of renewable energy resources.
d. Decreasing use of products derived from oil.
e. Careful use of energy in homes, schools, offices and public buildings.
PART 5 - Population
C.
Factors affecting population growth and population size
1. The history of Hong Kong’s population growth is related to natural population increase, migration and the growth of the territory.
2. The pattern of population growth in Hong Kong shows five distinct stages.
3. Until the 1960s, migration to the territory was a major factor in population change.
4. Factors causing increased birth rates in Hong Kong were:
a. Immigration.
b. The post-war baby boom.
c.
Lack of family planning.
5. Factors causing decline in birth rates are:
a. Industrialization.
b. Urbanization.
c. Improved standard of living.
d. Increasing number of women at work.
e. Improved education.
f. Changing attitudes of young people such as later marriages and small families.
g. More family planning and greater availability of methods of birth control.
6. Factors causing decline in death rates are:
a. Improvements in food and nutrition.
b. Higher standard of hygiene.
c. Improved health services.
d. The control of killer diseases such as tuberculosis.
7. The Demographic Transition Model shows how birth and death rates change over time. It has four stages.
8. Most countries have a population history which fits the Demographic Transition Model.
9. In developing countries, high birth rates and falling death rates mean that natural population increase rates are high.
10. In developed countries, low birth rates and low death rates mean that natural population increase rates are also low.
D.
The composition and structure of a population
1. Population structure looks at the age, sex and employment characteristics of a population.
2. The population structure of a country will change over time as a country develops economically.
3. Population pyramids are a method of showing the age and sex structure of a population. They will differ between countries and over time for the same country.
4. Population pyramids of the developed countries have narrow base.
5. Population pyramids of the developing countries have broad base and narrow top.
E.
Population distribution in China
1. In 1988, China had a population of 1087 million. This resulted in an average population desity of 113 people per km2.
2. Population of China is unevenly distributed. 75% of the population lives in 20% of the area.
3. The population distribution in China is affected by the physical factors of climate, soils and relief and the economic factors of resources, industry, trade and transport.
4. Population distribution is affected by a combination of physical, economic and social factors working together.
5. Factors of attraction are those which make an area suitable for people to live. These include a good climate, fertile soils, low relief, mineral resources and good transport links.
6. Factors of repulsion are those which make an area unattractive for people. These include a harsh climate, poor soils, high relief, low industrial potential, lack of mineral resources and poor communications.
7. The Chinese Government has a policy to produce a more even distribution of population.
8. Today, China’s population policy restricts married couples to one child per family.
9. Redistribution of population is occurring due to migration from Inner to Outer China, differences in natural increase rates and urbanization.
10. People move to cities because of better jobs, higher wages and better housing conditions.
F.
Population problems and solutions
1. The world’s population is increasing at about 73 million every year.
2. The vast majority of the increased population are born in the poor, developing countries.
3. The Reverend Thomas Malthus pointed out that population was growing faster than food supply.
4. Overpopulation occurs when there are too many people for the available resources.
5. Most of the world’s population live on just 30% of the land area.
6. Major problems of overpopulation are overcrowding, congestion, hunger, unemployment, pollution, poverty and crime.
7. The two main solutions to the population problem are to provide for the expanding population and to limit population growth.
8. Food supply could be increased by opening up new farmland, increasing yields and developing other food sources, e.g. the seas and oceans.
9. China has a strict population policy and as a result, birth rates fell from 28 per 1000 in 1970 to 21 per 1000 in 1988.
10. India was the first country to introduce a birth control policy in 1950.
11. Birth control policies vary from country to country. The most common methods are education and advice on family planning, cheap or free methods of birth control, abortion and sterilization.
PART 6 - Agricultural activities
G.
Farming systems
1. A farm works as a system with inputs, processes, outputs and feedback.
2. Physical inputs include climate and land.
3. Human inputs include labour, management, perception and tradition.
4. Economic inputs include capital, transport and market.
5. Technological inputs have helped to improve fields, but they must be introduced in a proper way.
6. Technological inputs cover environmental, mechanical, chemical and biological developments.
7. Institutional inputs include government influence and land tenure.
8. Outputs of the farm system include food, raw materials and waste. Waste can sometimes be cycled.
H.
The changing farm system in Hong Kong
1. In the 1950s, rice growing was the most important farming activity.
2. The climate of Hong Kong and the tradition of growing rice are the main factors explaining this pattern.
3. From 1954 to 1988, the agricultural land fell by almost one half.
4. The decline in agriculture can be explained by population growth as more farmland was used up and by rural-urban migration as people moved into jobs in industry in the urban areas.
5. Nowadays, no more rice is growth in Hong Kong. Instead, more farmers are growing vegetables and flowers, raising livestock and fish farming.
6. The changes in the pattern of farming and explained by human (migrants from China), economic (prices and market factors) and institutional (government help) factors.
7. The location of market garden farm areas is related to soils and relief, water supply, transport and communications.
I.
Intensive and extensive farming
1. One of the ways of classifying types of agriculture is to identify them as extensive and intensive farming.
2. China produces 36% of the world’s rice.
3. Rice is China’s most important food crop, accounting for 44% of all grain crops.
4. 75% of China’s rice is grown in South and Central China.
5. Rice cultivation is a very intensive agricultural activity, with labour as the main input.
6. A suitable climate in South China allows two to three crops of rice to be grown every year.
7. Much of agriculture in China is controlled by the government and so institutional influence is important.
8. Agriculture is a very important activity in Australia, making up 44% of exports and 9% of the national income.
9. The wheat-sheep belt is found mainly in the states of Victoria and New South Wales. These two states produce 45.5% of Australia’s wheat, 58% of lamb and 54.8% of sheep.
10. Most farms in the wheat-sheep belt are mixed farms. They were developed because of the advantages of having more than one activity on the same farm.
11. The farms in the wheat-sheep belt are about 500 to 2000 hectares in size and run as family operations.
12. China, Japan, the USSR and the Middle East are Australia’s main market for wheat. Wool is sent to Japan and Europe.
J.
Overcoming the constraints on farming
1. Constraints on farming are physical, economic and human.
2. Hong Kong’s farmers face problems of climate, relief, soils, population growth, labour, prices and technology.
3. Solutions to constraints on farming include irrigation, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, mechanization and increased government help.
4. Lack of land and the monsoon climate are the main constraints facing farmers in South China.
5. Water conservancy has been one of the main solutions to problems in South China. This involves preventing floods in the wet season and providing irrigation when rainfall is low.
6. There is need to improve the use of machinery, fertilizers and pesticides to increase rice yield in South China.
7. Farmers in the wheat-sheep belt face problems of varying rainfall, relatively low yield, changing prices and distance from markets.
8. The Snowy Mountain Scheme is a major project to increase the irrigated area of Southeast Australia.
9. The use of fertilizers, improved seeds and price controls have all helped farmers to improve yields in the wheat-sheep belt.
10. The problem of distance can be solved if good transport facilities are provided.
PART 7 - Manufacturing activities
A.
Factors affecting industrial location
1. Economic activities can be divided into primary, secondary and tertiary.
2. The main factors of the manufacturing system are land, raw materials, power, labour, markets, the entrepreneur and government policy.
3. Governments in many countries attempt to persuade industries to move to poorer regions using a ‘carrot and stick?policy.
4. Most industries have one factor which is more important than the others. They are being ‘oriented?towards that factor, e.g. market-oriented, raw material-oriented, power-oriented or labour-oriented industries.
5. Industries have no particular locational requirements are known as footloose industries.
B.
Changes in industrial developments
1.
Iron and steel industry in China
a. Before 1949, industry was relatively unimportance in China.
b. After the communists took power in 1949, China followed a periods of economic and industrial development. Four periods can be identified:
i. The First Five-Year Plan 1953-1957.
ii. The Second Five-Year Plan 1958-1962.
iii. ‘Walking on two legs?
iv. The Four Modernizations after 1978
c. The iron and steel industry in China was seen as the ‘core of industrial development?
d. Before 1952, 80% of China’s iron and steel production was on the east coast.
e. The location of steelworks in China is based on broad economic and strategic motives. Profit is not an important aspect of decision making.
f. There has been a tendency for iron and steel plants to move to the interior provinces.
g. In relocating the steel industry, a number of problems have resulted. These include difficulties with raw material supply, transport problems and poor choice of sites.
2.
Iron and steel industry in Japan
a. Japan has grown into a major industrial nation this century. This growth can be explained by a number of human and economic factors - including modern developments, a good labour force, government help and access to large markets at home and overseas.
b. Today, Japanese steel industry is the second largest in the world.
c. With changes in technology (less coal needed), the development of integrated works, and the need to import raw materials and export the finished products, the industry has moved away from the coalfields to locations on the coast in Southern Honshu.
d. Some steelworks remain their original location, despite being less efficient. This is known as industrial inertia.
C.
The changing pattern of industry in Hong Kong
1. Until 1958, trade and finance contributed most to the Hong Kong economy. After this year, manufacturing took over as the most importance source of wealth.
2. Almost all of Hong Kong’s industry is light industry. Heavy industries only account for 1.5% of the workforce.
3. The textile industry developed in Hong Kong because of the need for small-scale, light and labour-intensive industry.
4. The textile and clothing industry is still an important industry, and the electrical and electronics industry is rapidly growing.
5. The textile and clothing industry is declining in importance because of increased competition, a changing labour force, government influence and a realization that there are problems of having a specialized economy.
6. The electrical and electronics industry has grown rapidly and is now a large contributor to the Hong Kong economy.
7. The electrical and electronics industry developed because of Hong Kong’s labour force, geographical position, industrial adaptability and government assistance.