The Principles of Communism 

共產主義原理 

Beginselen van het Communisme


恩格斯 
Frederick Engels


 

 

第一個問題∶什麼是共產主義? 

What is Communism?

Wat is het communisme?

 

共產主義是關於無產階級解放的條件的學說。

Communism is the doctrine of the conditions of the liberation of the proletariat.

Het communisme is de leer van de voorwaarden voor de bevrijding van het proletariaat.

 


 

  第二個問題∶什麼是無產階級? 

What is the proletariat? 

Wat is het proletariaat?

  

無產階級是完全靠出賣自己的勞動而不是靠某一種資本的利潤來獲得生活資料的社會階級。這一階級的禍福、存亡和整個生存,都取決於對勞動的需求,即取決於生意的好壞,取決於不受限制的競爭的波動。一句話,無產階級或無產者階級是19世紀的勞動階級。

The proletariat is that class in society which lives entirely from the sale of its labor and does not draw profit from any kind of capital; whose weal and woe, whose life and death, whose sole existence depends on the demand for labor – hence, on the changing state of business, on the vagaries of unbridled competition. The proletariat, or the class of proletarians, is, in a word, the working class of the 19th century.[1]

 

 

 


 

  第三個問題∶是不是說,無產者不是一向就有的?

Proletarians, then, have not always existed?

 

 

  是的,不是一向就有的。窮人和勞動階級一向就有;並且勞動階級通常都是貧窮的。但是,生活在上述條件下的這種窮人、這種工人,即無產者,並不是一向就有的,正如競爭並不一向是自由的和不受限制的一樣。

 

No. There have always been poor and working classes; and the working class have mostly been poor. But there have not always been workers and poor people living under conditions as they are today; in other words, there have not always been proletarians, any more than there has always been free unbridled competitions.

 

 

 


 

  第四個問題∶無產階級是怎樣產生的?

How did the proletariat originate?

 

 

 

  無產階級是由於工業革命而產生的,這一革命在上個世紀下半葉發生於英國,後來,相繼發生於世界各文明國家。工業革命是由蒸汽機、各種紡紗機、機械織布機和一系列其他機械裝備的發明而引起的。這些價錢很貴、因而只有大資本家才買得起的機器,改變了以前的整個生產方式,擠掉了原來的工人。這是因為機器生產的商品要比工人用不完善的紡車和織布機生產的又便宜又好。這樣一來,這些機器就使工業全部落到大資本家手�堙A並且使工人僅有的一點薄產(工具、織布機等)變得一錢不值,於是資本家很快就佔有了一切,而工人卻一無所有了。從此,在衣料生產方面就實行了工廠制度。機器和工廠制度一經採用,這一制度很快就推行到所有其他工業部門,特別是印花業、印書業、制陶業和金屬品製造業等部門。工人之間的分工越來越細,於是,從前完成整件工作的工人,現在只做這件工作的一部份。這種分工可以使產品生產得更快,因而也更便宜。分工把每個工人的活動變成一種非帶簡單的、老一套的機械操作,這種操作利用機器不但能夠做得同樣出色,甚至還要好得多。因此,所有這些工業部門都像紡紗和織布業一樣,一個跟著一個全都受到了蒸汽動力、機器和工廠制度的支配。這樣一來,這些工業部門同時也就全都落到了大資本家的手�堙A工人也就失掉了最後的一點獨立性。除了原來意義上的工廠手工業,手工業也漸漸受到工廠制度的支配,因為這�堛漱j資本家也在通過建立可以大量節省開支和實行細緻分工的大作坊,不斷擠掉小師傅。結果,我們現在可以看到,在文明國家�堙A幾乎所有勞動部門都照工廠方式進行經營了,在所有勞動部門,手工業和工廠手工業幾乎都被工業擠掉了。於是,從前的中間等級,特別是小手工業師傅日益破產,工人原來的狀況發生了根本的變化,產生了兩個逐漸併吞所有其他階級的新階級。這兩個階級就是∶

  一、大資本家階級,他們在所有文明國家�堬{在已經幾乎獨佔了一切生活資料和生產這些生活資料所必需的原料和工具(機器、工廠)。這就是資產者階級或資產階級。

  二、完全沒有財產的階級,他們為了換得維持生存所必需的生活資料,不得不把自己的勞動出賣給資產者。這個階級叫作無產者階級或無產階級。

 

The Proletariat originated in the industrial revolution, which took place in England in the last half of the last (18th) century, and which has since then been repeated in all the civilized countries of the world.

This industrial revolution was precipitated by the discovery of the steam engine, various spinning machines, the mechanical loom, and a whole series of other mechanical devices. These machines, which were very expensive and hence could be bought only by big capitalists, altered the whole mode of production and displaced the former workers, because the machines turned out cheaper and better commodities than the workers could produce with their inefficient spinning wheels and handlooms. The machines delivered industry wholly into the hands of the big capitalists and rendered entirely worthless the meagre property of the workers (tools, looms, etc.). The result was that the capitalists soon had everything in their hands and nothing remained to the workers. This marked the introduction of the factory system into the textile industry.

Once the impulse to the introduction of machinery and the factory system had been given, this system spread quickly to all other branches of industry, especially cloth- and book-printing, pottery, and the metal industries.

Labor was more and more divided among the individual workers so that the worker who previously had done a complete piece of work now did only a part of that piece. This division of labor made it possible to produce things faster and cheaper. It reduced the activity of the individual worker to simple, endlessly repeated mechanical motions which could be performed not only as well but much better by a machine. In this way, all these industries fell, one after another, under the dominance of steam, machinery, and the factory system, just as spinning and weaving had already done.

But at the same time, they also fell into the hands of big capitalists, and their workers were deprived of whatever independence remained to them. Gradually, not only genuine manufacture but also handicrafts came within the province of the factory system as big capitalists increasingly displaced the small master craftsmen by setting up huge workshops, which saved many expenses and permitted an elaborate division of labor.

This is how it has come about that in civilized countries at the present time nearly all kinds of labor are performed in factories – and, in nearly all branches of work, handicrafts and manufacture have been superseded. This process has, to an ever greater degree, ruined the old middle class, especially the small handicraftsmen; it has entirely transformed the condition of the workers; and two new classes have been created which are gradually swallowing up all the others. These are:

(i) The class of big capitalists, who, in all civilized countries, are already in almost exclusive possession of all the means of subsistance and of the instruments (machines, factories) and materials necessary for the production of the means of subsistence. This is the bourgeois class, or the bourgeoisie.

(ii) The class of the wholly propertyless, who are obliged to sell their labor to the bourgeoisie in order to get, in exchange, the means of subsistence for their support. This is called the class of proletarians, or the proletariat.

 

 

 


 

  第五個問題∶無產者是在怎樣的條件下把勞動出賣給資產者的?

Under what conditions does this sale of the labor of the proletarians to the bourgeoisie take place?

 

 

勞動和其他任何商品一樣,也是一種商品,因此,它的價格和其他任何商品的價格一樣,也是由同樣的規律決定的。正像我們在下面將看到的,在大工業或自由競爭的統治下,情形都一樣,商品的價格平均總是和這種商品的生產費用相等的。因此,勞動的價格也是和勞動的生產費用相等的。而勞動的生產費用正好是使工人能夠維持他們的勞動能力並使工人階級不致滅絕所必需的生活資料的數量。工人的勞動所得不會比為了這一目的所必需的更多。因此,勞動的價格或工資將是維持生存所必需的最低額。但是,因為買賣有時清淡有時興旺,工人所得也就有多有少,正像廠主出賣商品所得有多有少一樣。如果把旺季和淡季平均起來,廠主出賣商品所得既不多於他的生產費用,也不少於他的生產費用,同樣,工人平均所得也是既不會多於這個最低額,也不會少於這個最低額。大工業越是在所有勞動部門占統治地位,工資的這一經濟規律體現得就越充份。

 

Labor is a commodity, like any other, and its price is therefore determined by exactly the same laws that apply to other commodities. In a regime of big industry or of free competition – as we shall see, the two come to the same thing – the price of a commodity is, on the average, always equal to its cost of production. Hence, the price of labor is also equal to the cost of production of labor.

But, the costs of production of labor consist of precisely the quantity of means of subsistence necessary to enable the worker to continue working, and to prevent the working class from dying out. The worker will therefore get no more for his labor than is necessary for this purpose; the price of labor, or the wage, will, in other words, be the lowest, the minimum, required for the maintenance of life.

However, since business is sometimes better and sometimes worse, it follows that the worker sometimes gets more and sometimes gets less for his commodities. But, again, just as the industrialist, on the average of good times and bad, gets no more and no less for his commodities than what they cost, similarly on the average the worker gets no more and no less than his minimum.

This economic law of wages operates the more strictly the greater the degree to which big industry has taken possession of all branches of production.

 

 

 


 

  第六個問題∶在工業革命前,有過什麼樣的勞動階級?

What working classes were there before the industrial revolution?

 

 

 

 

  在不同的社會發展階段上,勞動階級的生活條件各不相同,勞動階級在同有產階級和統治階級的關係中所處的地位也各不相同。在古代,勞動者是主人的奴隸。直到今天在許多落後國家甚至美國南部他們還是這種奴隸。在中世紀,勞動者是土地佔有者貴族的農奴,直到今天在匈牙利、波蘭和俄國他們還是這種農奴。此外,在中世紀,直到工業革命前,城市�媮晹釵b小資產階級師傅那�堸竣u的手工業幫工,隨著工廠手工業的發展,也漸漸出現了受較大的資本家雇用的工廠手工業工人。

 

The working classes have always, according to the different stages of development of society, lived in different circumstances and had different relations to the owning and ruling classes.

In antiquity, the workers were the slaves of the owners, just as they still are in many backward countries and even in the southern part of the United States.

In the Middle Ages, they were the serfs of the land-owning nobility, as they still are in Hungary, Poland, and Russia. In the Middle Ages, and indeed right up to the industrial revolution, there were also journeymen in the cities who worked in the service of petty bourgeois masters. Gradually, as manufacture developed, these journeymen became manufacturing workers who were even then employed by larger capitalists.

 

 


 

  第七個問題∶無產者和奴隸有什麼區別?

In what way do proletarians differ from slaves?

 

  

奴隸一次就完全賣掉了。無產者必須一天一天、一小時一小時地出賣自己。單個的奴隸是某一個主人的財產,由於他與主人利害攸關,他的生活不管怎樣壞,總還是有保障的。單個的無產者可以說是整個資產者階級的財產,他的勞動只有在有人需要的時候才能賣掉,因而他的生活是沒有保障的。只有對整個無產者階級來說,這種生活才是有保障的。奴隸處在競爭之外,無產者處在競爭之中,並且親身感受到競爭的一切波動。奴隸被看作物,不被看作市民社會的成員。無產者被承認是人,是市民社會的成員。因此奴隸能夠比無產者生活得好些,但無產者屬於更高的社會發展階段,他們本身處於比奴隸更高的階段。在所有的私有制關係中,只要廢除奴隸制關係,奴隸就能解放自己,並由此而成為無產者;無產者只有廢除一切私有制才能解放自己。

 

The slave is sold once and for all; the proletarian must sell himself daily and hourly.

The individual slave, property of one master, is assured an existence, however miserable it may be, because of the master’s interest. The individual proletarian, property as it were of the entire bourgeois class which buys his labor only when someone has need of it, has no secure existence. This existence is assured only to the class as a whole.

The slave is outside competition; the proletarian is in it and experiences all its vagaries.

The slave counts as a thing, not as a member of society. Thus, the slave can have a better existence than the proletarian, while the proletarian belongs to a higher stage of social development and, himself, stands on a higher social level than the slave.

The slave frees himself when, of all the relations of private property, he abolishes only the relation of slavery and thereby becomes a proletarian; the proletarian can free himself only by abolishing private property in general.

 

 

 


 

  第八個問題∶無產者和農奴有什麼區別?

In what way do proletarians differ from serfs?

 

 農奴佔有並使用一種生產工具,即一塊土地,為此他要交出自己的一部份收益或者服一定的勞役。無產者用別人的生產工具為這個別人做工,從而得到一部份收益。農奴是交出,無產者是得到。農奴生活有保障,無產者生活無保障。農奴處在競爭之外,無產者處在競爭之中。農奴可以通過各種道路獲得解放∶或者是逃到城市�堨h做手工業者;或者是交錢給地主代替勞役和產品,從而成為自由的佃農;或者是把他們的封建主趕走,自己變成財產所有者。總之,農奴可以通過不同的辦法加入有產階級的隊伍並進入競爭領域而獲得解放。無產者只有通過消滅競爭、私有制和一切階級差別才能獲得解放。

 

The serf possesses and uses an instrument of production, a piece of land, in exchange for which he gives up a part of his product or part of the services of his labor.

The proletarian works with the instruments of production of another, for the account of this other, in exchange for a part of the product.

The serf gives up, the proletarian receives. The serf has an assured existence, the proletarian has not. The serf is outside competition, the proletarian is in it.

The serf liberates himself in one of three ways: either he runs away to the city and there becomes a handicraftsman; or, instead of products and and services, he gives money to his lord and thereby becomes a free tenant; or he overthrows his feudal lord and himself becomes a property owner. In short, by one route or another, he gets into the owning class and enters into competition. The proletarian liberates himself by abolishing competition, private property, and all class differences.

 

 


 

  第九個問題∶無產者和手工業者有什麼區別?

In what way do proletarians differ from handicraftsmen?

第十個問題∶無產者和工廠手工業工人有什麼區別?

In what way do proletarians differ from manufacturing workers?

 

 

  16至18世紀,幾乎任何地方的工廠手工業工人都佔有生產工具,如織布機、家庭用的紡車和一小塊在工餘時間耕種的土地。這一切,無產者都沒有。工廠手工業工人幾乎總是生活在農村,和地主或雇主維持著或多或少的宗法關係。無產者通常生活在大城市,和雇主只有金錢關係。大工業使工廠手工業工人脫離了宗法關係,他們失去了僅有的一點財產,因此而變成無產者。

The manufacturing worker of the 16th to the 18th centuries still had, with but few exception, an instrument of production in his own possession – his loom, the family spinning wheel, a little plot of land which he cultivated in his spare time. The proletarian has none of these things.

The manufacturing worker almost always lives in the countryside and in a more or less patriarchal relation to his landlord or employer; the proletarian lives, for the most part, in the city and his relation to his employer is purely a cash relation.

The manufacturing worker is torn out of his patriarchal relation by big industry, loses whatever property he still has, and in this way becomes a proletarian.

 

 


 

  第十一個問題∶工業革命和社會劃分為資產者與無產者首先產生了什麼結果?

What were the immediate consequences of the industrial revolution and of the division of society into bourgeoisie and proletariat?

 

 

  ∶第一,由於在世界各國機器勞動不斷降低工業品的價格,舊的工廠手工業制度或以手工勞動為基礎的工業制度完全被摧毀。所有那些迄今或多或少置身於歷史發展之外、工業迄今建立在工廠手工業基礎上的半野蠻國家,隨之也就被迫脫離了它們的閉關自守狀態。這些國家購買比較便宜的英國商品,把本國的工廠手工業工人置於死地。因此,那些幾千年來沒有進步的國家,例如印度,都已經進行了完全的革命,甚至中國現在也正走向革命。事情已經發展到這樣的地步∶今天英國發明的新機器,一年之內就會奪去中國千百萬工人的飯碗。這樣,大工業便把世界各國人民互相聯繫起來,把所有地方性的小市場聯合成為一個世界市場,到處為文明和進步作好了準備,使各文明國家�媯o生的一切必然影響到其餘各國。因此,如果現在英國或法國的工人獲得解放,這必然會引起其他一切國家的革命,這種革命遲早會使這些國家的工人也獲得解放。

 

First, the lower and lower prices of industrial products brought about by machine labor totally destroyed, in all countries of the world, the old system of manufacture or industry based upon hand labor.

In this way, all semi-barbarian countries, which had hitherto been more or less strangers to historical development, and whose industry had been based on manufacture, were violently forced out of their isolation. They bought the cheaper commodities of the English and allowed their own manufacturing workers to be ruined. Countries which had known no progress for thousands of years – for example, India – were thoroughly revolutionized, and even China is now on the way to a revolution.

We have come to the point where a new machine invented in England deprives millions of Chinese workers of their livelihood within a year’s time.

In this way, big industry has brought all the people of the Earth into contact with each other, has merged all local markets into one world market, has spread civilization and progress everywhere and has thus ensured that whatever happens in civilized countries will have repercussions in all other countries.

It follows that if the workers in England or France now liberate themselves, this must set off revolution in all other countries – revolutions which, sooner or later, must accomplish the liberation of their respective working class.

 

 

  第二,凡是大工業代替了工廠手工業的地方,工業革命都使資產階級及其財富和勢力最大限度地發展起來,使它成為國內的第一階級。結果,凡是完成了這種過程的地方,資產階級都取得了政治權力,並擠掉了以前的統治級�L�L貴族、行會師傅和代表他們的專制王朝。資產階級廢除了長子繼承權或出賣領地的禁令,取消了貴族的一切特權,這樣便消滅了特權貴族、土地貴族的勢力。資產階級取消了所有行會,廢除了手工業者的一切特權,這樣便摧毀了行會師傅的勢力。資產階級用自由競爭來代替它們;在自由競爭這種社會狀況下,每一個人都有權經營任何一個工業部門,而且,除非缺乏必要的資本,什麼也不能妨礙他的經營。這樣,實行自由競爭就是公開宣佈∶從今以後,只是由於社會各成員的資本多寡不等,所以他們之間才不平等,資本成為決定性的力量,從而資本家,資產者成為社會上的第一階級。但是,自由競爭在大工業發展初期之所以必要是因為只有在這種社會狀況下大工業才能成長起來。資產階級這樣消滅了貴族和行會師傅的社會勢力以後,也就消滅了他們的政治權力。資產階級在社會上上升為第一階級以後,它也就在政治上宣佈自己是第一階級。它是通過實行代議制而做到這一點的。代議制是以資產階級的在法律面前平等和法律承認自由競爭為基礎的。這種制度在歐洲各國採取立憲君主制的形式。在這種立憲君主制的國家�堙A只有擁有一定資本的人即資產者,才有選舉權。這些資產者選民選出議員,而這些資產者議員可以運用拒絕納稅的權利,選出資產者政府。

 

Second, wherever big industries displaced manufacture, the bourgeoisie developed in wealth and power to the utmost and made itself the first class of the country. The result was that wherever this happened, the bourgeoisie took political power into its own hands and displaced the hitherto ruling classes, the aristocracy, the guildmasters, and their representative, the absolute monarchy.

The bourgeoisie annihilated the power of the aristocracy, the nobility, by abolishing the entailment of estates – in other words, by making landed property subject to purchase and sale, and by doing away with the special privileges of the nobility. It destroyed the power of the guildmasters by abolishing guilds and handicraft privileges. In their place, it put competition – that is, a state of society in which everyone has the right to enter into any branch of industry, the only obstacle being a lack of the necessary capital.

The introduction of free competition is thus public declaration that from now on the members of society are unequal only to the extent that their capitals are unequal, that capital is the decisive power, and that therefore the capitalists, the bourgeoisie, have become the first class in society.

Free competition is necessary for the establishment of big industry, because it is the only condition of society in which big industry can make its way.

Having destroyed the social power of the nobility and the guildmasters, the bourgeois also destroyed their political power. Having raised itself to the actual position of first class in society, it proclaims itself to be also the dominant political class. This it does through the introduction of the representative system which rests on bourgeois equality before the law and the recognition of free competition, and in European countries takes the form of constitutional monarchy. In these constitutional monarchies, only those who possess a certain capital are voters – that is to say, only members of the bourgeoisie. These bourgeois voters choose the deputies, and these bourgeois deputies, by using their right to refuse to vote taxes, choose a bourgeois government.

 

 

  第三,工業革命到處都使無產階級和資產階級以同樣的速度發展起來。資產者越發財,無產者的人數也就越多。因為只有資本才能使無產者找到工作,而資本只有在使用勞動的時候才能增加,所以無產階級的增加和資本的增加是完全同步的。同時,工業革命使資產者和無產者都集中在最有利於發展工業的大城市�堙A廣大群眾聚集在一個地方,使無產者意識到自己的力量。其次,隨著工業革命的發展,隨著擠掉手工勞動的新機器的不斷發明,大工業把工資壓得越來越低,把它壓到上面說過的最低額,因而無產階級的處境也就越來越不堪忍受了。這樣,一方面由於無產階級不滿情緒的增長,另一方面由於他們力量的壯大,工業革命便孕育著一個由無產階級進行的社會革命。

 

Third, everywhere the proletariat develops in step with the bourgeoisie. In proportion, as the bourgeoisie grows in wealth, the proletariat grows in numbers. For, since the proletarians can be employed only by capital, and since capital extends only through employing labor, it follows that the growth of the proletariat proceeds at precisely the same pace as the growth of capital.

Simultaneously, this process draws members of the bourgeoisie and proletarians together into the great cities where industry can be carried on most profitably, and by thus throwing great masses in one spot it gives to the proletarians a consciousness of their own strength.

Moreover, the further this process advances, the more new labor-saving machines are invented, the greater is the pressure exercised by big industry on wages, which, as we have seen, sink to their minimum and therewith render the condition of the proletariat increasingly unbearable. The growing dissatisfaction of the proletariat thus joins with its rising power to prepare a proletarian social revolution.

 

 

 

 


 

  第十二個問題∶工業革命進一步產生了什麼結果?

What were the further consequences of the industrial revolution?

 

  答∶大工業創造了像蒸汽機和其他機器那樣的手段,使工業生產在短時間內用不多的費用便能無限地增加起來。由於生產變得這樣容易,這種大工業必然產生的自由競爭很快就達到十分劇烈的程度。大批資本家投身於工業,生產很快就超過了消費。結果,生產出來的商品賣不出去,所謂商業危機就到來了。工廠只好關門,廠主破產,工人挨餓。到處出現了極度貧困的現象。過了一段時間,過剩的產品賣光了,工廠重新開工,工資提高,生意也漸漸地比以往更好起來。但這是不會長久的,因為很快又會生產出過多的商品,新的危機又會到來,這種新危機的過程和前次危機完全相同。因此,從本世紀初以來,工業經常在繁榮時期和危機時期之間波動。這樣的危機幾乎定期地每五年到七年發生一次,每一次它都給工人帶來極度的貧困,激起普遍的革命熱情,給整個現存制度造成極大的危險。

 

Big industry created in the steam engine, and other machines, the means of endlessly expanding industrial production, speeding it up, and cutting its costs. With production thus facilitated, the free competition, which is necessarily bound up with big industry, assumed the most extreme forms; a multitude of capitalists invaded industry, and, in a short while, more was produced than was needed.

As a consequence, finished commodities could not be sold, and a so-called commercial crisis broke out. Factories had to be closed, their owners went bankrupt, and the workers were without bread. Deepest misery reigned everywhere.

After a time, the superfluous products were sold, the factories began to operate again, wages rose, and gradually business got better than ever.

But it was not long before too many commodities were again produced and a new crisis broke out, only to follow the same course as its predecessor.

Ever since the beginning of this (19th) century, the condition of industry has constantly fluctuated between periods of prosperity and periods of crisis; nearly every five to seven years, a fresh crisis has intervened, always with the greatest hardship for workers, and always accompanied by general revolutionary stirrings and the direct peril to the whole existing order of things.

 

 

 


 

  第十三個問題∶這種定期重覆的商業危機會產生什麼後果?

What follows from these periodic commercial crises?

 

 

  答∶第一,雖然大工業在它的發展初期自己創造了自由競爭,但是現在它的發展已經超越了自由競爭的範圍。競爭和個人經營工業生產已經變成大工業的枷鎖,大工業必須粉碎它,而且一定會粉碎它。大工業只要還在現今的基礎上進行經營,就只能通過每七年出現一次的普遍混亂來維持,每次混亂對全部文明都是一種威脅,它不但把無產者拋入貧困的深淵,而且也使許多資產者破產。因此,或者必須完全放棄大工業本身(這是絕對不可能的),或者大工業使建立一個全新的社會組織成為絕對必要的,在這個新的社會組織�堙A工業生產將不是由相互競爭的單個的廠主來領導,而是由整個社會按照確定的計畫和所有人的需要來領導。

  第二,大工業及其所引起的生產無限擴大的可能性,使人們能夠建立這樣一種社會制度,在這種社會制度下,一切生活必需品都將生產得很多,使每一個社會成員都能夠完全自由地發展和發揮他的全部力量和才能。由此可見,在現今社會中造成一切貧困和商業危機的大工業的那種特性,在另一種社會組織中正是消滅這種貧困和這些災難性的波動的因素。

 

First:

That, though big industry in its earliest stage created free competition, it has now outgrown free competition;

that, for big industry, competition and generally the individualistic organization of production have become a fetter which it must and will shatter;

that, so long as big industry remains on its present footing, it can be maintained only at the cost of general chaos every seven years, each time threatening the whole of civilization and not only plunging the proletarians into misery but also ruining large sections of the bourgeoisie;

hence, either that big industry must itself be given up, which is an absolute impossibility, or that it makes unavoidably necessary an entirely new organization of society in which production is no longer directed by mutually competing individual industrialists but rather by the whole society operating according to a definite plan and taking account of the needs of all.

Second: That big industry, and the limitless expansion of production which it makes possible, bring within the range of feasibility a social order in which so much is produced that every member of society will be in a position to exercise and develop all his powers and faculties in complete freedom.

It thus appears that the very qualities of big industry which, in our present-day society, produce misery and crises are those which, in a different form of society, will abolish this misery and these catastrophic depressions.

 

  這就完全令人信服地證明∶

We see with the greatest clarity:

 

  (1)從現在起,可以把所有這些弊病完全歸咎於已經不適應當前情況的社會制度;

(i) That all these evils are from now on to be ascribed solely to a social order which no longer corresponds to the requirements of the real situation; and

 

  (2)通過建立新的社會制度來徹底淫除這些弊病的手段已經具備。

(ii) That it is possible, through a new social order, to do away with these evils altogether.

 

 

(未完繼續。)


 

  第十四個問題∶這種新的社會制度應當是怎樣的?

  答∶這種新的社會制度首先必須剝奪相互競爭的個人對工業和一切生產部門的經營權,而代之以所有這些生產部門由整個社會來經營,就是說,為了共同的利益、按照共同的計畫、在社會全體成員的參加下來經營。這樣,這種新的社會制度將消滅競爭,而代之以聯合。因為個人經營工業的必然結果是私有制,競爭不過是單個私有者經營工業的一種方式,所以私有制同工業的個體經營和競爭是分不開的。因此私有制也必須廢除,而代之以共同使用全部生產工具和按照共同的協定來分配全部產品,即所謂財產共有。廢除私有制甚至是工業發展必然引起的改造整個社會制度的最簡明扼要的概括。所以共產主義者完全正確地強調廢除私有制是自己的主要要求。

 


 

  第十五個問題∶這麼說,過去廢除私有制是不可能的?

  答∶不可能。社會制度中的任何變化,所有制關係中的每一次變革,都是產生了同舊的所有制關係不再相適應的新的生產力的必然結果。私有制本身就是這樣產生的。私有制不是一向就有的;在中世紀末期,產生了一種工廠手工業那樣的新的生產方式,這種新的生產方式超越了當時封建和行會所有制的範圍,於是這種已經超越舊的所有制關係的工廠手工業便產生了新的所有制形式--私有制。對於工廠手工業和大工業發展的最初階段來說,除了私有制,不可能有其他任何所有制形式,除了以私有制為基礎的社會制度,不可能有其他任何社會制度。只要生產的規模還沒有達到不僅可以滿足所有人的需要,而且還有剩餘產品去增加社會資本和進一步發展生產力,就總會有支配社會生產力的統治階級和貧窮的被壓迫階級。至於這些階級是什麼樣子,那要看生產的發展階段。在依賴農業的中世紀,是領主和農奴;在中世紀後期的城市�堙A是行會師傅、幫工和短工;在17世紀是工廠手工業主和工廠手工業工人;在19世紀是大工廠主和無產者。非常明顯,在這以前,生產力還沒有發展到私有製成為這些生產力發展的桎梧和障礙。但是現在,由於大工業的發展,第一,產生了空前大規模的資本和生產力,並且具備了能在短時期內無限提高這些生產力的手段;第二,生產力集中在少數資產者手�堙A而廣大人民群眾越來越變成無產者,資產者的財富越增加,無產者的境遇就越悲慘和難以忍受;第三,這種強大的、容易增長的生產力,已經發展到私有制和資產者遠遠不能駕馭的程度,以致經常引起社會制度極其劇烈的震盪。只有這時廢除私有制才不僅可能,甚至完全必要。

 


 

  第十六個問題∶能不能用和平的辦法廢除私有制?

  答∶但願如此,共產主義者當然是最不反對這種辦法的人。共產主義者很清楚,任何密謀都不但無益,甚至有害。他們很清楚,革命不能故意地、隨心所欲地製造,革命在任何地方和任何時候都是完全不以單個政黨和整個階級的意志和領導為轉移的各種情況的必然結果。但他們也看到,幾乎所有文明國家的無產階級的發展都受到暴力壓制,因而是共產主義者的敵人用盡一切力量引起革命。如果被壓迫的無產階級因此最終被推向革命,那時,我們共產主義者將用行動來捍衛無產者的事業,正像現在用語言來捍衛它一樣。

  第十七個問題∶能不能一下子就把私有制廢除?

  答∶不,不能,正像不能一下子就把現有的生產力擴大到為實行財產公有所必要的程度一樣。因此,很可能就要來臨的無產階級革命,只能逐步改造現社會,只有創造了所必需的大量生產資料之後,才能廢除私有制。

  第十八個問題∶這個革命的發展過程將是怎樣的?

  答∶首先無產階級革命將建立民主的國家制度,從而直接或間接地建立無產階級的政治統治。在英國可以直接建立,因為那�堛熊L產者現在已占人民的大多數。在法國和德國可以間接建立,因為這兩個國家的大多數人民不僅是無產者,而且還有小農和小資產者,小農和小資產者正處在轉變為無產階級的過渡階段,他們的一切政治利益的實現都越來越依賴無產階級,因而他們很快就會同意無產階級的要求。這也許還需要第二次鬥爭,但是,這次鬥爭只能以無產階級的勝利而告終。

  如果不立即利用民主作為手段實行進一步、直接侵犯私有制和保障無產階級生存的各種措施,那麼,這種民主對於無產階級就毫無用處。這些作為現存關係的必然結果現在已經產生出來的最主要的措施如下∶

  用累進稅、高額遺產稅、取消旁系親屬(兄弟、侄甥等)繼承權、強制公債等來限制私有制。
  一部份用國家工業競爭的辦法,一部份直接用紙幣贖買的辦法,逐步剝奪土地所有者、工廠主、鐵路所有者和船主的財產。
  沒收一切反對大多數人民的流亡份子和叛亂份子的財產。
  在國家農場、工廠和作坊中組織勞動或者讓無產者就業,這樣就會消除工人之間的競爭,並迫使還存在的廠主支付同國家一樣高的工資。
  對社會全體成員實行同樣的勞動義務制,直到完全廢除私有制為止。
  成立產業軍,特別是在農業方面。
  通過擁有國家資本的國家銀行,把信貸系統和金融業集中在國家手�堙C取消一切私人銀行和銀行家。
  隨著國家擁有的資本和工人的增加,增加國家工廠、作坊、鐵路和船舶,開墾一切荒地,改良已墾土地的土壤。
  所有的兒童,從能夠離開母親照顧的時候起,都由國家出錢在國家設施中受教育。把教育和生產結合起來。
  在國有土地上建築大廈,作為公民公社的公共住宅。
  公民公社將從事工業生產和農業生產,將把城市和農村生活方式的優點結合起來,避免二者的片面性和缺點。
  拆毀一切不合衛生條件的、建築得很壞的住宅和市區。
  婚生子女和非婚生子女享有同等的繼承權。
  把全部運輸業集中在國家手�堙C

  自然,所有這一切措施不能一下子都實行起來,但是它們將一個跟著一個實行,只要向私有制一發起猛烈的進攻,無產階級就要被迫繼續向前邁進,把全部資本、全部農業、全部工業、全部運輸業和全部交換都越來越多地集中在國家手�堙C上述一切措施都是為了這個目的。無產階級的勞動將使國家的生產力大大增長,隨著這種增長,這些措施實現的可能性和由此而來的集中化程度也將相應地增長。最後,當全部資本、全部生產和全部交換都集中在國家手�堛漁伬唌A私有制將自行滅亡,金錢將變成無用之物,生產將大大增加,人將大大改變,以致連舊社會最後的各種交往形式也能夠消失。

  第十九個問題∶這種革命能不能單獨在一個國家發生?

  答∶不能。單是大工業建立了世界市場這一點,就把全球各國人民,尤其是各文明國家的人民,彼此緊緊地聯繫起來,以致每一國家的人民都受到另一國家發生的事情的影響。此外,大工業使所有文明國家的社會發展大致相同,以致在所有這些國家,資產階級和無產階級都成了社會上兩個起決定作用的階級,它們之間的鬥爭成了當前的主要鬥爭。因此,共產主義革命將不是僅僅一個國家的革命,而是將在一切文明國家�堙A至少在英國、美國、法國、德國同時發生的革命62,在這些國家的每一個國家中,共產主義革命發展得較快或較慢,要看這個國家是否有較發達的工業,較多的財富和比較大量的生產力。因此,在德國實現共產主義革命最慢最因難,在英國最快最容易。共產主義革命也會大大影響世界上其他國家,會完全改變並大大加速它們原來的發展進程。它是世界性的革命,所以將有世界性的活動場所。

  第二十個問題∶最終廢除私有制將產生什麼結果?

  答∶由於社會將剝奪私人資本家對一切生產力和交換手段的支配權以及他們對產品的交換和分配權,由於社會將按照根據實在資源和整個社會需要而制定的計畫來管理這一切,所以同現在的大工業管理制度相聯繫的一切有害的後果,將首先被消除。危機將終止。擴大的生產在現今的社會制度下引起生產過剩,並且是產生貧困的極重要的原因,到那個時候,這種生產就會顯得十分不夠,還必須大大擴大。超出社會當前需要的生產過剩不但不會引起貧困,而且將保證滿足所有人的需要,將引起新的需要,同時將創造出滿足這種新需要的手段。這種生產過剩將是新的進步的條件和刺激,它將實現這種進步,而不會像過去那樣總是因此造成社會秩序的混亂。擺脫了私有制壓迫的大工業的發展規模將十分宏偉,相形之下,目前的大工業狀況將顯得非常渺小,正像工廠手工業和我們今天的大工業相比一樣。工業的這種發展將給社會提供足夠的產品以滿足所有人的需要。現在由於私有制的壓迫和土地的分散而難以利用現有改良成果和科學成就的農業,將來同樣也會進入嶄新的繁榮時期,並將給社會提供足夠的產品。這樣一來,社會將生產足夠的產品,可以組織分配以滿足全體成員的需要。因此,社會劃分各個不同的相互敵對的階級就是多餘的了。這種劃分不僅是多餘的,甚至是和新的社會制度互不相容的。階級的存在是由分工引起的,現在這種分工將完全消失,因為要把工業和農業生產提高到上面說過的水平,單靠機械和化學的輔助手段是不夠的,還必須相應地發展使用這些手段的人的能力。當上個世紀的農民和工廠手工業工人被捲入大工業的時候,他們改變了自己的整個生活方式而成為完全不同的人,同樣,由整個社會共同經營生產和由此而引起的生產的新發展,也需要完全不同的人,並將創造出這種人來,共同經營生產不能由現在這種人來進行,因為他們每一個人都只隸屬於某一個生產部門,受它束縛,聽它剝削,在這�堙A每一個人都只能發展自己才能的一方面而偏廢了其他各方面,只熟悉整個生產的某一個部門或某一個部門的一部分。就是現在的工業也越來越不能使用這樣的人了。由整個社會共同地和有計劃地來經營的工業,更加需要才能得到全面發展、能夠通曉整個生產系統的人。因此,現在已被機器破壞了的分工,即把一個人變成農民、把另一個人變成鞋匠、把第三個人變成工廠工人、把第四個人變成交易所投機者,將完全消失。教育將使年輕人能夠很快熟悉整個生產系統,將使他們能夠根據社會需要或者他們自己的愛好,輪流從一個生產部門轉到另一個生產部門。因此,教育將使他們擺脫現在這種分工給每個人造成的片面性。這樣一來,根據共產主義原則組織起來的社會,將使自己的成員能夠全面發揮他們的得到全面發展的才能。於是各個不同的階級也必然消滅。因此,根據共產主義原則組織起來的社會一方面不容許階級繼續存在,另一方面這個社會的建立本身為消滅階級差別提供了手段。

  由此可見,城市和鄉村之間的對立也將消失。從事農業和工業的將是同一些人,而不再是兩個不同的階級,單從純粹物質方面的原因來看,這也是共產主義聯合體的必要條件。鄉村農業人口的分散和大城市工業人口的集中,僅僅適應於工農業發展水平還不夠高的階段,這種狀態是一切進一步發展的障礙,這一點現在人們就已經深深地感覺到了。

  由社會全體成員組成的共同聯合體來共同地和有計劃地利用生產力;把生產發展到能夠滿足所有人的需要的規模;結束犧牲一些人的利益來滿足另一些人的需要的狀況;徹底消滅階級和階級對立;通過消除舊的階級,通過產業教育、變換工種、所有人共同享受大家創造出來的福利,通過城鄉的融合,使社會全體成員的才能得到全面發展;�L�L這就是廢除私有制的主要結果。

  第二十一個問題∶共產主義社會制度對家庭將產生什麼影響?

  答∶共產主義社會制度將使兩性關係成為僅僅和當事人有關而社會無須干預的純粹私人關係。共產主義社會制度之所以能實現這一點,是由於這種社會制度將廢除私有制並將由社會教育兒童,從而將消滅現代婚姻的兩種基礎,即私有制所產生的妻子依賴丈夫、孩子依賴父母。這也是對道貌岸然的市儈關於共產主義公妻制的號叫的回答。公妻制完全是資產階級社會的現象,現在的賣淫就是公妻制的充分表現。賣淫是以私有制為基礎的,它將隨著私有制的消失而消失。因此,共產主義組織並不實行公妻制,正好相反,它要消滅公妻制。

  第二十二個問題∶共產主義組織將怎樣對待現有的民族?

�L�L保留原案。

  第二十三個問題∶共產主義組織將怎樣對待現有的宗教?

�L�L保留原案。

  第二十四個問題∶共產主義者和社會主義者有什麼區別?

  答∶所謂社會主義者分為三類∶

  第一類是封建和宗法社會的擁護者,這種社會已被大工業、世界貿易和由它們造成的資產階級社會所消滅,並且每天還在消滅。這一類社會主義者從現今社會的弊病中得出了這樣的結論∶應該恢復封建和宗法社會,因為它沒有這種種弊病。他們的所有建議都是直接或間接地為了這一目的。共產主義者隨時都要堅決同這類反動的社會主義者作鬥爭,儘管他們假惺惺地表示同情無產階級的苦難並為此而灑出熱淚。因為∶

  他們追求一種根本不可能的事情;他們企圖恢復貴族、行會師傅、工廠手工業主以及和他們相聯繫的專制君主或封建君主、官吏、士兵和僧侶的統治,他們想恢復的這種社會固然沒有現今社會的各種弊病,但至少會帶來同樣多的其他弊病,而且它根本不可能展現通過共產主義組織來解放被壓迫工人的任何前景;當無產階級成為革命的和共產主義的階級的時候,這些社會主義者總要暴露出他們的真實意圖。那時他們馬上和資產階級聯合起來反對無產者。第二類是現今社會的擁護者,現今社會必然產生的弊病,使他們為這個社會的存在擔心。因此,他們力圖保持現今社會,不過要消除和它聯繫在一起的弊病。為此,一些人提出了種種簡單的慈善辦法,另一些人則提出了規模龐大的改革計畫,這些計畫在改組社會的藉口下企圖保存現今社會的基礎,從而保存現今社會本身。共產主義者也必須同這些資產階級社會主義者作不懈的鬥爭,因為他們的活動有利於共產主義者的敵人,他們所維護的社會正是共產主義者所要推翻的社會。

  最後,第三類是民主主義的社會主義者,他們和共產主義者同道,他們希望實現xxx問題(1)中所提出的部份措施,但他們不是把這些措施當作走向共產主義的過渡辦法,而是當作足以消除貧困和現今社會的弊病的措施。這些民主主義的社會主義者,或者是還不夠瞭解本階級解放條件的無產者,或者是小資產階級的代表,這個階級直到爭得民主和實行由此產生的社會主義措施為止,在許多方面都和無產者有共同的利益。因此,共產主義者在行動的時候,只要民主主義的社會主義者不為占統治地位的資產階級效勞和不攻擊共產主義者,就應當和這些社會主義者達成協議,這時盡可能和他們採取共同的政策。當然,共同行動並不排除討論存在於他們和共產主義者間的分歧意見。

  第二十五個問題∶共產主義者怎樣對待現有的其他政黨?

  答∶在不同的國家採取不同的態度。在資產階級占統治地位的英國、法國和比利時,共產主義者和各民主主義政黨暫時還有共同的利益,並且民主主義者在他們現在到處堅持的社會主義措施中越接近共產主義者的目的,就是說,他們越明確地堅持無產階級的利益和越依靠無產階級,這種共同的利益就越多。例如在英國,由工人組成的憲章派就要比民主主義小資產者或所謂激進派在極大程度上更接近共產主義者。

  在實行民主憲法的美國,共產主義者必須支持願意用這個憲法去反對資產階級、並利用它來為無產階級謀利益的政黨,即全國土地改革派。

  在瑞士是激進派,雖然他們本身是個成份極其複雜的政黨,但他們是共產主義者能夠打交道的唯一政黨,其中瓦特州和日內瓦州的激進派又是最進步的。

  最後,在德國,資產階級和專制君主制之間的決戰還在後面。但是,共產主義者不能指望在資產階級取得統治以前就和資產階級進行決戰,所以共產主義者為了本身的利益必須幫助資產階級儘快地取得統治,以便儘快地再把它推翻。因此,在自由派資產階級同政府的鬥爭中,共產主義者始終應當支持自由派資產階級,只是應當注意,不要跟著資產者自我欺騙,不要聽信他們關於資產階級的勝利給無產階級帶來良好結果的花言巧語。共產主義者從資產階級的勝利中得到的好處只能是∶(1)得到各種讓步,使共產主義者易於捍衛、討論和傳播自己的原則,從而使無產階級易於聯合成一個緊密團結的、準備戰鬥的和有組織的階級;(2)使他們確信,從專制政府垮臺的那一天起,就輪到資產者和無產者進行鬥爭了。從這一天起,共產主義者在這�堜珣蘑�的黨的政策,將和在資產階級現在已占統治地位的那些國家�堜珣蘑�的政策一樣。
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寫於1847年10月底-11月
1914年第一次以單行本形式出版,原文是德文
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