Lifetime Participation in Gymnastics
00PEP017
Applied Sports Science: Gymnastics
Submitted by
(A031044)
Department of Physical
Education, Sports Science and Recreation Management
Loughborough University
April 2001
Gymnastics is considered an important area of activity in physical education, as reflected by its inclusion in the National Curriculum at most Key Stages (Department of Education and Science, 1995). The historical evolution of gymnastics from health pursuits, military training and medical therapy in the past to the present educational tool under the theme ‘education through the physical’ has been widely discussed (eg. Goodbody, 1982; Russell, 1988; Gajdos, 1997). While one of the aims of physical education is to promote lifetime participation in sports, the Government’s Sport and Active Recreation policies in 1991 also targets to ‘promote physical exercise and participation in sport and active recreation by adults, giving support where appropriate to the provision of facilities and of opportunities for participation’ (Central Office of Information, 1994, p.9).
In the past
15 years, gymnastics has been ranked within the top 10 sports in Iceland,
Norway, Sweden, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany, Austria and
Portugal, and has become the top one sport in Italy in 1992 if stretching is
included (Rossi-Mori, 1995). Many European countries recognize gymnastics as
lifetime activities and the most common type of fitness classes are rhythmical
gymnastics (Russell, 1995; Smith, 1987). There are national and international
festivals where groups exchange techniques and display their own forms of
gymnastics The ‘Lingiades’, the ‘Gymnaestrades’, the ‘Turnfests’, the
‘Spartakiades’ are examples of such festivals in which tens of thousands of
participants are adults who perform gymnastics as a leisure/fitness activity.
While lifetime participation in gymnastics continued to co-exist in Europe
along with the physical education systems of gymnastics, this was not the case
in England or North America (Russell, 1988).
A survey of
physical education curricula in the USA reports that less than 4% of the
activity units are dance-gymnastics in the ninth-grade (Napper-Owen &
Kovar, 1999). In general, most schools delivered traditional multi-programs
emphasizing team and lifetime sports. The authors suggest that the hidden
curriculum of constantly de-emphasized certain activities (eg. gymnastics) may
be unintentionally telling students that those activities are not important.
This may explain why gymnastics is not commonly taken as a lifetime sport in
the country. In addition, Russell (1988) criticized that the gymnastics
programme in North America was still based on artistic gymnastics which can be
dangerous and frustrating for both teachers and students. The negative
experience of gymnastics in schools will likely put people away from further
participation. With some exceptions, a case study of an adult gymnastic class
in New York attributed its success to good coaching and easy accessibility
(Ferstle, 1978).
The General House Survey 1990 reports that
29 million people in Britain over the age of 16 regularly take part in sport or
other forms of exercise (Central Office of Information, 1994, pp.4-5). The most
popular activity is walking, followed by swimming, snooker/pool, keep fit/yoga,
cycling and darts. As discussed above, gymnastics is popular in most European
countries. This is however not the case in the adult population in Britain. The
target groups for British gymnastics is probably school children and young
adults, with approximately 83,000 members affiliated to local clubs or the
British Amateur Gymnastics Association (BAGA) (Central Office of Information,
1994, pp.82-83). While Dutch population is less than a third of the British,
there are about 300,000 club members for gymnastics in Netherlands, which
represents a much higher proportion of participation (Deckers & Gratton,
1995). Even within the British young population, the SCNI survey conducted in
1992 showed that less than 15% had gymnastics experience, and 27 of these young
people (out of 2310) described it as their ‘top sport’ (Kremer, 1997). Roberts
& Brodie (1992) found that most sports being played into late adulthood
were first played by the individuals earlier in their lives. Since gymnastics
is considered as a minority sport from school age in Britain, it is unlikely to
be popular among the adult population.
Roberts
& Brodie (1992) also highlighted that sport participation gradually changes
with age because people’s motivations and constraints are changing during the
life course. The authors attributed the success of a sport to be taken as a
lifetime activity to its specific appeal to people in middle age and beyond, as
well as its ability to attract such individuals who had no prior experience of
the sport. Most people associate gymnastics with hard-to-perform skills and to
dangerous activities (Russell, 1985), therefore it appears difficult for adults
to take up gymnastics late in their life. It would be challenging, but not
impossible, to change their formulated impression and re-educate them about the
healthy and enjoyable experience that gymnastics supposed to be.
Although the
BAGA is beginning to promote gymnastics in a recreational context, Britain
still lacks behind many other European countries in exploiting gymnastics as a
leisure/fitness activity (Smith, 1987). Among the some 150,000 sports clubs in
Britain, only 1000 clubs run gymnastics programmes (Central Office of
Information, 1994, p.19, 83). Most gymnastics clubs focus on artistic
gymnastics for children, with a few exceptions that also include adult
recreational class (eg. Phoenix, High Wycombe,
Rushcliffe Leisure Centre). The convenient access to facility with respect to
time and location plays a significant role to seniors’ participation in
exercise programmes (Stirling et al., 1984). Adults who have become locked into
sport are normally finding somewhere to play however sparse the provisions in
the areas they have settled, and whatever the other demands on their time. In contrast, marginal players can be held or lost
to sport depending on the facilities that are currently available in their
areas (Roberts & Brodie, 1992, p.72). There is enough evidence to suggest
that increased provisions for facilities and clubs can persuade the public to
participate in sports. This is especially true for gymnastics in which space,
equipments and coaching are essential.
What is gymnastics for
adults?
The four
main disciplines of gymnastics are artistic (or Olympic) gymnastics, rhythmic
gymnastics, sports acrobatics and general gymnastics. Trampolining is sometimes
included in gymnastics, particularly after its adoption as an Olympic event in
2000 (eg. Netherlands, Hong Kong). The educational gymnastics or movement
education in school is another form of gymnastics originated from Laban
movement (Cameron & Pleasance, 1963; Houghton, 1966; Williams, 1979).
Gymnastics can also be classified with respect to its nature of participation
as competitive gymnastics, recreational gymnastics, display gymnastics and
applied gymnastics.
In
Netherlands, the most popular activities among adult gymnastics club members is
recreative (recreational) gymnastics, which is the major activity for every age
group except 16-20 years (Deckers & Gratton, 1995). Competitive gymnastics
is the most popular activity for the 16-20 years age group, and declined
dramatically in 20-25 years group. Trampolining is also popular within these
two younger age groups. It should be noted that both competitive gymnastics and
trampolining are rarely mentioned by the over 30s. These data suggest that as
age increases, people prefer less competitive and physical demanding gymnastics
activity.
A study in
the 1983 German Gymnastic Festival investigated the physical fitness level of
185 gymnasts aged between 30 and 65 (Starischka & Böhmer, 1984). It was
reported that the gymnasts spent 2.5 to 3 hours a week in physical activity on
average, of which 70% in gymnastics and tumbling. The level of tumbling and the
differentiation among age groups are not discussed in the paper however. By
visual inspection of the data, it can be seen that older gymnasts demonstrate
higher degree of shoulder flexibility, and stronger upper extremities and core
stability than their younger counterparts. On the other hand, they are inferior
in leg power, cardiovascular fitness and balance. It
is interesting to note that the older gymnasts do not show as much
physiological limitations as reported (Shephard, 1984; Smith & Gilligan,
1984; American College of Sports Medicine, 2000). This allows them to do
tumbling which is comparatively physical demanding to other forms of exercise.
This evidence supports that adequate exercise can maintain good physical
performance even after having reached old age (Meusul, 1984).
The general
gymnastics origins from North Europe has been gradually introduced into Asia.
Japan is the first country to develop general gymnastics, followed by Hong
Kong. The Hong Kong Amateur Gymnastics Association (HKAGA) has been doing a lot
of work to promote general gymnastics since 1993 (HKAGA, 2001). Emphasis is put
on ‘gymnastics for all age’ and family participation. Display festivals are
hold regularly, attracting considerable participants aged from 3 to 70 in
schools and clubs. This can be seen as an ultimate success to penetrate general
gymnastics into different age groups.
In the last
decades, the People’s Republic of China excels in competitive gymnastics
(Chappell, 1997). Unfortunately, there is not much published statistical data
in this area. From personal experience, gymnastics is perceived as elite sports
only in the Chinese society. Retired gymnasts do not continue participation in
gymnastics, nor general populations take gymnastics as a leisure activity.
There is lack of opportunity to develop gymnastics as a lifetime sport because
it is against the norm of the society. Nonetheless, there is massive
participation in morning exercises, particularly within the elderly population.
Such morning exercises usually take the form of tai-chi, stretching and dance,
which are similar to the contents of gymnastics.
In summary,
different forms of gymnastics from stretching to tumbling are performed all
over the world in the adult population. The choice of activity depends on
personal interest, age, physical condition, society culture and access to
facilities. An American book classified gymnastics as excellent in developing
sport-related physical fitness and most health-related physical fitness, but it
is not recommended as a lifetime sport (Corbin & Lindsey, 1977, p.129,
169). The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommends the public to
take moderate intensity of daily physical activity approximately 3-6 METs for
health benefits (ACSM, 2000, p.4). The metabolic equivalent of gymnastics is 10
METs (Wilmore, 1982, p.244), which is far too strenuous than the recommended
value. However, gymnastics does not necessary to be as physically demanding as
in competitive gymnastics. It can be modified to age and ability specific so
that everybody can enjoy the sport (Smith & Gilligan, 1984). Most elderly
sports nowadays are a continuation of the kind of training that these people
undertook as youngsters and competitors, but with reduced workloads (Meusel, 1984).
Gymnastics for whom?
Gymnastics
have been common in school children as a consequence of the physical education
curriculum. In the adult population, Dechavanne (1985) identified a
feminarization process from 1970s onwards in France, where 94% of 350,000 gymnastics
club members were female in 1983. The female dominance situation might be
limited to France only as the female (55%) and male (45%) proportion in the
1983 German Gymnastic Festival was more or less the same (Starischka &
Böhmer, 1984). Despite the rapid development of women’s gymnastics in the last
decades (Ullmann, 1985), there is not enough evidence to suggest that
gymnastics is labeled as a female sport.
Research on
the age distribution of gymnastics participants is limited. Dechavanne’s (1985)
study shows the majority participation from 19 to 50 years old, and that the
highest participation in the 31-40 age group. This is consistent with Ducker
and Gratton’s (1995) findings that over 75% of the sample were over 30 years
old and more than half were over 40 years old. In both studies, there still
considerable participants in the over 60 years old. This reinforces the
possibility of taking gymnastics as a lifetime sport.
Russell
(1985) identified three target groups in the adult population whom could
benefit by more exposure to gymnastics: former competitive gymnasts, athletes
from other sports, and fitness conscious adults. Apart from the health benefits
and physiological aspect, social motives also attract many adults to sports
participation (Gavin, 1992, p.21; Heitmann, 1984; Stirling et al., 1984). Using
the leisure framework, individuals may take up physical activities for
recreational purposes, with little or no fitness values (Daly, 1982). Following
are some case studies of adult gymnastics participants in East Midlands,
England. All names used are fictitious.
[Adrian] is
a former gymnast who used to compete at the international level. He retired in
his late 20s and took up gymnastics coach in his career. He is now 40 years
old, coaching in a club which offers gymnastics training from kids to adult. He
does not practice gymnastics anymore after his retirement, but occasionally
demonstrates some skills when he coaches. Nevertheless, he is still capable of
doing some difficult skills in good quality, for example, the Crucifix in
rings, giant swing in bar, handspring on floor, and single somersaults on
trampoline.
It is
obvious that [Adrian] is physically ready to do gymnastics again. However, as
Russell (1985) pointed out, extremely little is being done to encourage
gymnasts’ continued participation. He suggested the introduction of masters
festivals and competitions with modification in routine requirement, apparatus
and marking system to encourage greater participation. Shephard (1984) also
agreed that participation could be extended through the introduction of
age-specific competitions and simple adjustments to the rules. A good example
can be seen in masters diving which covers 25-79 years age group (Hunter,
2000). The World Masters Diving Championship is hold annually, along with
regular meets in Europe and the USA (Clark, 2000; Hunter, 2000; U.S. Masters
Diving, 2001).
[Paul], 42
years old, has just took up gymnastics for one week. In two sessions, he learnt
the headspring and the front somersault. He was so excited as he described, ‘I remember what the coaches said all the
time … even my dream is gymnastics!’ He is an absolute beginner who has no
previous experience in related sports. When asked about why he came to gymnastics,
the answer was surprising. He went for a skiing trip in Christmas during which
he mastered the skills that people normally took a year to learn in three days.
He then decided to become a ski-instructor within one year. Since there is no
skiing available in England, he has committed to keep himself as fit as
possible and travel to ski once he earns enough money. He thinks that
gymnastics is the best sport to develop his strength, power, balance and
coordination, which are essential to skiing. At the same time, he jogs everyday
and work very hard to earn money.
This is a
successful example of beginning gymnastics at middle age. [Paul] takes up
gymnastics as supplement training for skiing. This ‘applied gymnastics’ are
more common with younger athletes, particularly those in related sports like
diveing and trampolining (Russell, 1985; Smith, 1987). It also demonstrates the
potential development of ‘applied gymnastics’ in the adult population to
encourage participation.
[John]
signed up for the adult gymnastics session half a year ago. His motives of
joining came from his 7-year-old son who had been training in gymnastics for
one year. He loved the sport once he had started, and had been putting great
effort to improve. Start at the age of 35, he could still perform the skills in
good quality. He found it great to share his gymnastics experience with his
son, ‘I can tell my son that [the coach]
said my flip was perfect, no kids in the gym can do as good as I can.’ He
is one of the hardest workers in the gym and nearly attends every session
(twice a week). His commitment and assertive attitude towards gymnastics have
made him the title ‘miracle gymnast’ of the club.
[John]’s
case is another successful example of adult beginners in gymnastics. His
enjoyment comes from personal satisfaction and family support. As Hong Kong is
promoting general gymnastics for family participation, artistic or any form of
gymnastics can also serve for enhancing family cohesion.
[Joanne] is physically disabled in her left leg. She took up gymnastics in a club near her home upon graduation from university when she was 22 years old. In four years, she came every session and was now the contact person of the club. She was surprised by what she did in gymnastics: ‘I never believe that I’ll be able to do the upstart … and the back and front somersaults. But now I nearly do it, really great!’ Because of her disability, the coach designs a specialized programme for her. Although she can’t walk like normal people, one can’t tell the difference when she is performing a round off or somersaults on the trampoline.
This example reflects that gymnastics can be tailor-made for people with disability. Being highly individualized, gymnastics is excellent in building up self-image and confidence. The psychological benefits may be far more important than the physical benefits for the disabled population. Special attention should be paid to the knowledge and ability of the coach to design an appropriate programme. Besides, [Joanne]’s managerial position is in agreement with Dechavanne’s (1985) female leaders profile. Individuals are often quite proud of taking on responsibilities within their group. From [Joanne]’s active involvement, it can be seen that she enjoys herself very much in gymnastics and has recognized her role in the club.
In conclusion, gymnastics is definitely possible to be a lifetime sport. While European countries lead the development of ‘gymnastics for life’, other parts of the world including Britain are lacking behind. The first step towards the development of lifetime participation is through education. ‘With enthusiastic teaching it may be possible to encourage children to see gymnastics as a form of exercise for life’ (Smith, 1987). Along with government support and increased provisions of opportunities, gymnastics can be a good choice of lifetime sport for former competitive gymnasts, beginners, recreational participants, fitness conscious persons, athletes from other sports, people with disability and everyone else. Finally, effective coaching with appropriate modification to age and ability specific also plays a significant role to encourage participation.
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